Anatomy and Physiology: Mammal Tissues and Organs

• Mammals possess souls, are made in the image of God, have complex thinking systems, and possess a conscience.

Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy is the study of the different organs and structures of the body.
• Physiology is the study of how organs and structures in the body function.
• Physiology is understanding the job an anatomy does and anatomy is knowing the parts.
• Cells make up tissues and tissues make organs, organs make systems, and systems make organisms.

Tissues

• Tissues are groups of cells that work together.
• Nerve tissue receives and transmits electrochemical impulses.
• Connective tissue supports, connects, and protects other body structures.
• Muscle tissue contracts to move the body, or smooth muscle moves substances through the body.
• Epithelial tissue lines the internal and external surfaces of the body.

Organs

• Organs are groups of tissues that work together.
• The pericardium is made of connective tissue and surrounds the outside lining of the heart.
• The endocardium is made of epithelial tissue and lines the inside of the heart.
• Nerves connect to nodes to coordinate the heartbeat.
• Muscle tissue contraction produces the heartbeat.

Integumentary System

• The integumentary system consists of skin, hair, and nails.
• It protects the body against injury, infection, and UV radiation.
• The integumentary system helps regulate body temperature.

Epidermis

• The epidermis is the outer layer of skin, made of epithelial tissue.
• The epidermis contains dead cells filled with keratin.
• Dead cells are shed and replaced by new, keratin-filled cells from below.
• Nails and hair are made of keratin.

Dermis

• The dermis is the second layer of skin.
• The dermis is made of connective tissue.
• The dermis contains blood vessels, nerves, follicles, and glands.

Subcutaneous Layer

• This layer is not part of the skin.
• This layer consists of loosely arranged fat cells and fibers.
• Fat cells provide cushioning and insulation.
• Fibers attach the skin to muscles underneath.

Hair Follicles and Pores

• Follicles are structures that hold cells that divide to produce hair growth.
• The visible parts of hair are dead cells filled with keratin.
• Pores are small openings in the epidermis that release oil onto the skin's surface.

Skin Functions

• Skin provides sensation via nerve endings that respond to cold, heat, touch, pressure, and pain.
• Nerves wrap around hair follicles to detect hair movement.
• The skin protects against germs and friction.

Skin Issues

• Intense friction separates the epidermis from the dermis, causing fluid to form a blister.
• Less friction results in a callus.

Vitamin D

• Sunlight produces vitamin D, which helps the body absorb calcium and phosphorus from the small intestine.
• Other vitamins come from food.

Temperature Regulation

• When the body becomes warm, blood flows through vessels in the dermis, releasing heat, and sweat glands produce sweat that evaporates.
• When the body becomes cold, less blood flows through vessels, sweat glands close, and small muscles in skin hair follicles contract.
• Contraction of small muscles in the skin, such as those in hair follicles, causes goosebumps.

Melanin

• Melanin is a brown pigment that determines human skin, hair, and eye color.
• Melanin absorbs UV radiation and protects against sun damage.
• Melanin production increases with sun exposure.
• Melanin alone cannot fully protect from sun damage.

Skeletal System

• Bones are connective tissue.
• Bones are living tissue, a solid network of cells and proteins surrounded by calcium.
• Bones are made of calcium and phosphorus.
• Bones grow as you grow.

Periosteum

• The periosteum is the tough, outer layer of connective tissue surrounding a bone.

Bone Types

• Spongy bone is found at the ends and centers of many bones, it being hard, rigid, yet less compact.
• Compact bone lies beneath the periosteum, dense, yet filled with nerves and blood vessels.
• Osteons are circular layers created by cells that live between layers in compact bone.
• Small channels between these layers carry oxygen and nutrients.

Bone Marrow

• Bone marrow is located in the very center of bones in hollow regions and spaces of spongy bone.
• Red bone marrow in children makes red blood cells.
• Yellow bone marrow in adults is mostly made of fat.

Cartilage

• Cartilage is a connective tissue that is more flexible and softer than bone.
• Cartilage contains less calcium.
• Cartilage is found in outer ears, at the tip of the nose and at the ends of bones for sliding against each other.
• Cartilage does not have blood vessels.
• Growth plates are areas made of cartilage, and growth causes bones to lengthen.
• As you age, cartilage begins to harden and be replaced by bone tissue.
• When the cartilage is completely replaced, you stop growing.

Joints

• Joints are where two bones meet.
• Ligaments, bands of connective tissue, are at the joint area.
• Movable joints allow movement in one or more directions.
• Immovable joints are where bones are permanently fused together.
• The skull has several bones fused to form a rigid structure.

Skeletal Functions

• The skeleton provides support and movement.
• Skeletons support bodies, enable movement via joints and furnish attachment points for muscles.
• Skeletons protect organs, such as the ribs, skull, and pelvis.
• Calcium can be removed if the body needs it; extra calcium is stored in the skeletal system.
• Marrow produces blood cells.

How the Body Moves

• Body movement occurs when muscles become shorter or thicker, or contract.
• Skeletal muscles are also known as striated muscles.
• Involuntary muscles are automatically controlled by the nervous system and the cardiac muscle of the heart is involuntary.
• Muscle cells use cellular respiration to break down glucose to produce ATP.
• When muscles cannot get enough oxygen, they use lactic acid fermentation.
• Breads, cereals, desserts, and starchy vegetables are sources of carbohydrates.
• Saturated fats tend to be solids at room temperature.
• Amino acids make up proteins, which are found in meat, eggs, and nuts.
• Water, essential for life, provides the place where most of the chemical reactions in the body occur and dissolves foods.
• There are 6 classes of nutrients.
• The energy that the body takes in is measured in calories.
• The skin consists of epidermis (dead skin cells filled with keratin), dermis (blood vessels, nerves, glands, follicles), and subcutaneous layer (fat and fiber).
• The skin's functions include sensation, protection, temperature regulation, and vitamin D production.
• Melanin, the brown pigment, is found in skin, hair, and eyes.

Parts of a Bone

• Periosteum is a tough layer that covers the entire bone
• Spongy bone is hard and rigid and has many holes
• Compact bone has circular layers filled with channels that carry oxygen and nutrients.

Functions of the Skeleton

• Support, movement, protection, mineral storage, and blood cell production.

Muscular System

• The muscular system is the organ system for body movement
• Skeletal system cannot work independently
• Muscles must contract (become thicker and shorter) to pull, but not push.

Types of Muscles

• the types of muscles are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.

Skeletal Muscles

• Tendons are bands of connective tissue that connect muscle to bone.
• Ligaments are also connective tissue and attach bones to bones.
• Voluntary muscles can be controlled at will.
• Under a microscope, skeletal muscles have light and dark bands called striations.
• Skeletal muscles can react quickly but tire quickly and are called striated muscles.
• The shortest skeletal muscle is about 1 mm in the ear and the longest is 30 cm from hip to knee.

Smooth Muscle

• Smooth muscles have no striations and appear smooth.
• Smooth muscles are involuntary and do not move at will.
• Smooth muscles generally contract more slowly than voluntary muscles.
• Smooth muscles form walls of hollow structures such as the stomach, intestines, blood vessels, and other internal organs.

Cardiac Muscle

• Cardiac muscle is involuntary and is found only in the heart. has striations.
• Cardiac muscle is named according to shape, direction of fibers and size

How Skeletal Muscles Work

• Skeletal muscles work in pairs.
• When the arm bends at the elbow, the bicep contracts and the tricep relaxes.
• When the arm straightens, the bicep relaxes and the tricep contracts.

Smooth Muscles

• Peristalsis is the action of smooth muscles in the digestive tract.
• Smooth muscles in the esophagus contract while muscles just ahead of the food relax, allowing the food to move forward.
• This action happens without conscious thought.

Energy for Muscles

• Muscles need energy to function and use cellular respiration.
• Glucose stored in muscles is broken down to produce ATP (aerobic respiration).
• Muscles use ATP to contract and oxygen is necessary for the process.
• If muscles can't get enough oxygen, they use lactic acid fermentation, which produces ATP in the absence of oxygen but doesn't produce as much ATP.
• Muscle cells can function for only a short time without oxygen.
• Once muscles are working, lactic acid is converted back to glucose to be reused.

Why Humans Need Food

• Humans need food for energy and raw materials to build and repair tissue.

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates can be simple or complex.
• Simple carbs are smaller molecules like glucose, broken down quickly by the body for energy, are found in fruits and honey.
• Complex carbs are larger molecules like starch and cellulose, digested slowly, and found in potatoes, beans, and rice.
• Most carbs are broken into glucose for cellular respiration.

Fats

• Fats protect internal structures and nerves, form cellular membranes, and store extra energy.
• Saturated fats tend to be solid at room temperature
• Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and easier for the body to break down.

Minerals

• Minerals are inorganic substances used to control processes and build structures like bones.
• Minerals are needed in small amounts.
• Calcium makes up bones and teeth.
• Iron makes hemoglobin for red blood cells.
• Sodium helps with nerve and muscle function and need to be consumed.

Vitamins

• Vitamins are nutrients that the body needs to function properly, but cannot produce on its own.
• Vitamins are usually needed in small amounts.
• There are 12 essental vitamins like: A, D, E, K, B1, B2,, NIACIN, C etc

Proteins

• Proteins are made of amino acids.
• Proteins are used to build structures and control reactions.
• The body makes 12 of the 20 amino acids and the others come from food.
• Plants do not contain all the essential amino acids.

Water

• Water is essential for life - every cell needs water.
• Water dissolves foods, facilitates chemical reactions, maintains fluid balance in blood and helps regulate body temperature.
• Humans need at least half a gallon a day providing energy/nutrients needed to survive.

Digestion

• Mechanical and chemical are the two forms of digestion.
• Chemical digestion breaks down food particles into molecules using enzymes or.
• Assimilation uses the absorbed nutrients to make new cells and other structures.
• The alimentary canal, is a 9 m tube where digestion takes place.
• Peristalsis in the esophagus is caused by contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle.
• Chyme is formed in the stomach.
• The pancreas produces the most digestive enzymes in the digestive system.
• Villi are finger-like structures lining the small intestines.

Excretory System

• It removes wastes; the excretory system's primary function.
• Ammonia is a toxic waste molecule produced as the body uses proteins and is converted into urea by the liver.
• Each kidney contains about one million tiny structures, nephrons, that filter blood.
• Ureters are thin tubes uses peristalsis to move urine to the bladder and, in kidneys, keep the right amount of water in the body.

Types of Muscles:

• Cardiac: only found in the heart, striated, and involuntary.
• Skeletal: voluntary, striated, and aids in movement.
• Smooth muscles: involuntary and found mainly in the digestive system.
• Muscles get energy through food molecules broken down into glucose, which is converted into ATP.

Homeostasis

• Muscles help maintain homeostasis: shivering, goosebumps, or moving up and down.
• Digestion is breaking down food into molecules for use.
• Mechanical digestion crushes food, starts in the mouth and in the stomach.
• Chemical digestion uses enzymes and acids to break down food.
• Carbs break down into simple sugars, fats are separated, and proteins break down into amino acids.

Digestive Process

• The steps include: Ingestion, Mechanical digestion, Chemical digestion, Absorption, and Assimilation.
• The alimentary canal is the 9m tube where digestion takes place
• Salivary glands produce saliva to begin carbohydrate digestion.
• Esophagus moves food to the stomach through the alimentary canal using peristalsis
• Food is ground and reacts with enzymes and acids to make pasty substances called chyme.
• Acessory organs break down chyme into molecules
• The pancreas produces a digestive enzyme released into the small intestine
• The liver produces bile, stored in the gallbladder, which releases bile into small intestine to digest fats.
• Microscopic structures where absorbtion takes place take place in the villi in the small intestine. They provide surface area for nutrients to be absorbed.
• Large intestine receives whatever is undigested, absorbs water and minerals.
• The rectumis the final structure of the large intestine and waste is elimanated.

Excretory System

• This system includes; skin, sweat glands, lungs and Kidneys.
• Lungs get rid of carbon dioxide.
• The liver converts ammonia into urea.
• Kidneys filter blood
• The urinary system eliminates wastes, and maintains correct water levels.
• Body wastes include, excess Salt, Carbon Dioxide and Ammonia (from proteins being broken down into amino acids)

Removing Urea

• Ammonia must be converted to urea and transported to kidneys, which filter out urea, excess water, minerals, and other wastes.
• Millions of nephrons filter the blood in the Kidney.
• Contents such as, water, nutrients, and substances can be removed from plasma and enter nephrons.
• Removed water, nutrients and substances like drugs and some water remain as urine passing through the the ureters.
• Peristalsis moves urine down ureters to the bladder (muscular storage organ) until it can be removed.
• The the Urethra is a tiny muscular tube that carries the waste to the outside of the body
• The kidneys maintans water levels and Removing wastes to maintain homeostasis by directly responds directly to blood composition.

Chapter 13.1-13.6

• Anatomy is the study of different organs and structures in the body.
• Physiology is the study of how organs and structures function.
• Connective tissue supports, connects, and protects.
• Epithelial tissue lines external/internal surfaces, including skin and internal organ linings.
• The pericardium and endocardium are parts of the heart.
• The integumentary system protects and includes the skin.
• The epidermis is the outer layer of skin.
• The subcutaneous layer is below the dermis and contains loosely arranged fat cells.
• Vitamin D is produced when exposed to sunlight.
• Melanin, a brown pigment, determines skin color.
• Periosteum is a tough, white tissue.
• Cartilage is connective tissue, softer and more flexible than bone.
• Moveable joints allow movement in one or more directions.
• Calcium gives bones hardness and rigidity.

Chapter 13.7-14.2

• Muscles contract when becoming shorter or thicker; skeletal muscles are striated.
• The nervous system controls involuntary muscles automatically: cardiac is an involuntary heat muscle
• Muscle cells use cellular respiration to break down glucose and produce ATP.
• Lactic acid fermentation happens, when muscles do not get enough oxygen.
• Breads, cereals, desserts, and starchy vegetables all provide carbohydrates
• Saturated fats are solid at room temperature.
• Proteins contain amino acids and are found in meat, eggs, and nuts.
• 6 classes of nutrients use water to allow chemical reactions to occur.
• The energy bodies take in is calories
• Water dissolving foods.

Chapter 14.3 -14.6

• The process of breaking down food particles into molecules using enzymes or acids is chemical digestion
• The process in which the body uses the absorbed nutrients to make new cells and other structures is assimilation
• The 9 meter tube where digestion takes place is called the alimentary canal/
• Peristalsis moves food through the esophagus by smooth muscle contraction.
• Chyme is formed in the stomach.
• The pancreas produces more digestive enzymes in the digestive system.
• Villi are the finger-like structures lining the small intestines.