Anatomy and Human Physiology

Homeostasis

• To maintain internal conditions, organisms must maintain homeostasis
• Homeostasis includes temperature, water contents and chemical content

Anatomy

• Anatomy is the scientific study of body stuctures
• Gross anatomy studies large visible structures
• Microscopic anatomy studies small structures, such as cells and tissues, with the assistance of a microcscope
• Regional anatomy considers the interrelationships of all structures in a specific body area
• Systemic anatomy studies the structures that make up a discrete body function
• Anatomy studies structure, while physiology if the study of function

Human physiology

• Human physiology studies the chemistry and physics of the body structures
• This supports the function of life and leans to homeostasis

Chemical Level of Organization

• Atoms are the smallest particle of an element
• Atoms are composed of, protons, neutrons and electrons
• Molecules are the chemical building blocks of all body sctructures
• Atomic number is how many protons and electrons
• Atomic mass is the number of protons and neutrons
• To calculate the number of neutrons, you must subtract the number of protons from the mass number

Cell

• Cells are the basic unit of life
• Cells are the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism
• All organisms are made of cells
• Some organisms are made up of only one cell, called unicellular, and is identical to its parent
• Most organisms are made of many cells, called multicellular
• Cells can change to undergo differentiation
• Cells contain specialized structures called organelles
• They are surrounded by a plasma membrane
• They contain DNA
• Cell membranes are porous to allow water, carbon dioxide, oxygen and nutrients to pass

DNA

• DNA is the genetic information in all cells
• DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid
• GENES contains DNA instructions for traits
• PROTEINS make the structures and complex chemicals for life
• Somatic cells contain the same DNA
• Humans have 46 chromosomes of 23 pairs
• Somatic cells are any cell in the body except sperm and egg cells
• Bacteria has a cellular structure and are considered independently living

Organ

• An organ is a distinct structure made of two or more tissue types
• The organ performs one or more specific physiological functions

Organ System

• An organ system is a group of organs that work toward a common physiological needs
• Major functions include: organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, development and reproduction
• Metabolism describes all chemical reactions involved in maintaining cells

Functions of the Organ system - Organization

• Molecular and cellular levels contain organization
• Substances are taken in from the environment and organized into complex ways
• Specific cell structures carry out functions
• In multicellular organisms, cells and groups are organized via their function

Functions of the Organ system - Metabolism

• Metabolism uses energy during the reaction
• The sum of all chemical processes including digestion and adsorption
• Energy is required to maintain cells, grow and reproduce
• Metabolism is the sum of all anabolic and catabolic reactions
• Anabolism combines smaller molecules into larger ones
• Catabolism breaks molecules into smaller ones

Functions of the Organ system - Responsiveness

• Body responds to stimuli in the external environment
• Can respond to changes in light, heat, sound, chemical and mechanical contact
• Coordinates the body's responses
• This adjusts changes in external and internal environment

Functions of the Organ system - Movement

• Capable of moving from one place to another, or simply moving some body parts
• Unicellular organisms move from cilia and flagellates
• Human movement includes actions at the joints, motion of organs and individual cells

Functions of the Organ system - Development

• The process by which an adult organism arises occurs via development Repeated cell divisions and cell differentiation

Functions of the Organ system - Homeostasis Support

• Atmospheric air contains about 20% oxygen
• This is a key component for chemical reactions
• These reactions keep the body alive and produce ATP
• Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the main source of energy for cellular processes
• Nutrients in foods and beverages are essential to survival and can be broken down into three classes; water, the energy-yeilding and body building varieties, and the micronutrients vitamins and minerals
• Pressure is exerted by a substance in contact with another substance
• Atmospheric pressure is exerted by the mixture of gases in the Earth's atmosphere
• Maintaining homeostasis requires the body to continuously monitor its internal conditions and maintain a set point
• The set point is the physiological value around the normal range fluctuates

Negative Feedback

• Negative feedback can reverse a deviation from the set point
• This helps maintain the body's parameters within their normal range
• Has three basic components; a sensor, a control center, and an effector

Other facts

• A negative feedback mechanism has three major effects, blood vessels dilate, increased sweat glands, increased respiration depth
• Positive feedback intensifies a change to move further away from the normal range, and only occurs when there is a define end like childbirth
• Anatomical terminology increases precision and reduces medical errors

Directional Terms

• Terms are essential for describing locations of different body structure
• Anterior (or ventral) is the front of the body
• Posterior (or dorsal) is toward the back of the body
• Superior (or cranial) describes the position above other parts
• Inferior, or caudal, describes the position below other parts
• Lateral describes the side or direction toward the side of the body
• Medial is the middle of the body
• Proximal is a position in the limb that is near the point of attachement in the trunk of the body Distal is a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body
• Superficial describes the body closer to the surface
• Deep describes the position farther away from the surface of the body

Body Planes

• A section is a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut
• The sagittal plane divides the body vertically running down the middle
• The frontal plane divides the body into an anterior (front) and a posterior (rear) portion.
• The transverse plane divides the body horizontally into upper and lower portions

Body cavitites

• The Dorsal (posterior) cavity has the cranial and spinal regions
• This protects the brain and spinal cord
• The Anterior (ventral) contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic regions
• It allows for expansion of organs

Tissue Membrane

• Tissue membrane contains the serous membrane
• The serous membrane covers walls and organs, called serosa
• There are three serous cavities and membranes; pleura in the pleural cavity, pericardium in the pericardial cavity and peritoneum in the abdominopelvic cavity

Medical Imaging - X-Rays

• Wilhelm Röntgen was the first to experiment with X-Rays
• It provided a durable record of the internal parts of a living human

Medical Imaging - CT Scan

• Computed tomography is a non-invasive technique that uses computers to analyses sectional X-rays

Medical Imaging - MRI

• Magnetic resonance imaging is a non-invasive imaging technique that used exposed matter and magnetic fields
• It is precise and dicovered tumors

Medical Imaging - Positron Emission Tomography

• A medical imaging technique using radiopharmaceuticals
• Illustrates physiological activity

Medical Imaging - Ultrasonography

• An imaging technique that transmits high-frequency sound waves into the body to generate real time anatomy

Chemistry Level of Organization - Matter

• Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass
• Element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler chemical substances
• The main components in the living cell are CHNOPS, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur
• Compound is a substance that is composed of atoms of 2 or more different elements chemically combined
• Atom is the smallest particle of an element with the element's charactersitics

Chemistry Level of Organization - Isotopes

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
• A bond is weak, and holds atoms in the same vicinity Molecule is the combination of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

Chemistry Level of Organization - Compounds

• An inorganic compound does not contain both carbon and hydrogen
• An organic compound contains both carbon and hydrogen
• A mixture is a combination of substances in which the components retain their own properties, there are several types of mixtures like Solutions and Suspensions
• pH measures how acidic or basic a substance is
• The scale goes from 0-14
• The middle at 7 pH is neutral
• Above 7 is basic

Chemistry Level of Organization - Definitions

• Acid forms hydrogen ions in water
• Base forms hydroxide ions in water
• Water makes 70-95% of most organisms
• Salts are formed when ions form ionic bonds

The Macromolecules of life

• These are are a relatively small set of monomers
• Polymers are materials made of chain molecules
• Cells use carbohydrates to store and release energy and have the ratio of 2H: 1O
• Carbohydrates are known as saccharides
• Monosaccharides are the monomers of carbohydrates, disaccharides are made of two monomers and polysaccharides are the chain polymers
• Glycogen stores food reserves in the liver while cellulose is the material for the cell walls

Cell structure - Lipids

• These are fats and oils
• Function is water storage, insulation and protecion
• Contains numerous C-H fatty acids

Cell structure - Enzyme and Proteins

• Protein monomers are amino acids
• Proteins are formed by peptide bonds
• This bond performs structural, transport, movement, defense and regulation of cell functions
• This enzyme is very important biological catalyst

Cell Structure - Nucleic Acids

• These are DNA and RNA
• Control cell activities for functions
• Units of a nitrogenous base, sugar and phosphate group

Introduction Epithelial Tissues

• The Epithelial, Connective, Muscle and Nervous tisse all contribute to different origins
• Zygote is a fertizlied egg
• Totipotent stems cells in the body can differenciate and develop
• Blastula makes a secreting enzyme
• A tissue membrane is a thin layer/ sheet of cells on the outisde of the body
• Protects the organ, covers the skin and acts as a water barrier

Epithelial Tissues - Types

• Mucous membrane is composed of Connective and Epithelial
• They line cavities and passageways to the externa
• It contains the Lamina popria or own layer to support
• Serous membrane is an Epithelial structure
• This lines the Coelomic cavity

Epithelial Tissues - Facts

• They are thin membrane or outer covering
• The Epithelium has no vessels and derived from the connective
• Epithelia shape is highly structured and little to no extra cellular material
• They are formed with a thin basement membrane
• Epithelial tissues can be damaged easily to regrow