Amide and Peptide Bonds Quiz

Biochemistry Lecture 1: Functional Groups

• Functional groups are covalently bonded sets of atoms
• These groups give molecules specific physical and chemical properties
• Knowing the functional group helps identify the atoms in a molecule

Learning Styles

• Visual learners learn best by seeing information
• Kinesthetic learners learn best by doing
• Auditory learners learn best by hearing information
• Students should tailor their note-taking to their learning style
• Review notes daily
• Review again in 2-3 days
• Review prior to the next lecture

Biochemistry Definition

• Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms
• It takes knowledge gained from chemistry and applies it to biological systems
• It looks at fundamental processes in biology

Importance of Biochemistry in Medicine

• Biochemistry is crucial for advancements in the field of medicine
• It reveals the biochemical changes that take place in the body during disease or infections

Level of Understanding in BIOM201

• Basic level covers the chemistry of main molecules (proteins, fats, carbohydrates) of life
• Intermediate level focuses on main biochemical reactions in human cells
• Advanced level explores the impact of drugs on the respiratory chain

Cell Composition

• Cells consist of peptides, proteins, sugars, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and metabolites
• Carbon is the most common element in the major macromolecules of a cell

Human Body Composition

• Water comprises 62% of the human body
• Proteins make up 16%
• Other elements present in differing amounts

Hydrocarbons

• Hydrocarbons are organic molecules made up of only hydrogen and carbon atoms.
• Organic molecules (fats) commonly contain hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons are important because they undergo reactions that produce, or release a lot of energy.

Hydrocarbon Classification

• Hydrocarbons can be classified into aliphatic and aromatic categories.
• Aliphatic hydrocarbons include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes
• Aromatic hydrocarbons have a ring structure, like benzene

Alkane Structure Comparison

• Alkanes contain only single bonds.
• Saturated hydrocarbons have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons have double or triple bonds, leading to fewer hydrogen atoms in their carbon chains

IUPAC Nomenclature

• The IUPAC system ensures unique and unambiguous names for organic compounds, including hydrocarbons
• Rules are used to name organic compounds as a means of providing a standardized system
• Prefixes are used to indicate the number of carbons, with specific suffixes to indicate the type of hydrocarbon

Aldehyde Structure and Nomenclature

• Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group (C=O) and a hydrogen (connected to it)
• The general formula is RCHO
• The carbonyl carbon is the "carbonyl center"
• The naming of aldehydes follows the IUPAC system

Aldehyde Reactions

• Aldehydes are reactive chemicals and are toxic to the body
• Aldehydes are used in synthetic resins and dyes and many other chemicals
• Aldehydes are also used as disinfectants and preservatives

Ketone Structure and Nomenclature

• Ketones contain a carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to two other carbon atoms
• The general formula is RCOR'
• The naming of ketones follows the IUPAC system

Ketone Reactions

• High levels of ketones in the blood or urine may indicate that a developing diabetic ketoacidosis is likely, and this is a life-threatening condition
• Ketones may also indicate that the body needs more insulin

Alcohol Structure and Properties

• An alcohol is an organic compound that contains a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a carbon atom
• Alcohols have the general formula ROH
• Hydroxyl groups are polar and can exhibit hydrogen bonding properties

Medically Important Alcohols

• Methanol is used in pharmaceutical manufacture but causes blindness and death upon ingestion
• Ethanol can be used as a disinfectant and sterilizer
• Ethylene glycol is used as anti-freeze
• Glycerol is used in various products because of its viscosity

Phenols

• Phenols are characterized by a hydroxyl group attached to a benzene ring
• Simple phenols can dissolve in water
• Phenols have a role in flavorings and fragrances

Phenol Reactions

• Phenols can be used as a standard reference and disinfectants
• However they can cause chemical burns

Reactions of Alcohols

• Alcohols can undergo dehydration, reduction, and oxidation
• The products of these reactions often include alkane, aldehydes, ketones, acids, and esters

Summary of Alcohol Redox

• Oxidations involve a loss of hydrogen and gain of oxygen
• Reduction involves a gain of hydrogen and loss of oxygen
• Alcohols can be oxidized to form aldehydes, ketones, or acids depending on the specific reaction

Carboxylic Acids

• Carboxylic acids have a carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to a hydroxyl group (—OH)
• The general formula is RCOOH
• Carboxyl acids are important in a lot of biological and chemical processes

Carboxyl Acid-Base Reactions

• Carboxylic acids behave as acids, releasing hydrogen ions in solutions
• They react with strong bases to produce carboxylate salts and water
• They are also widely used in medicine

Carboxylic Acid Reactions in Medicine

• Aspirin treats pain and reduces fever
• Carboxylic acids can be used as diet supplements

Esters

• Esters are formed from an alcohol and carboxylic acid, through esterification reactions
• Esters contain a carbonyl group (C=O), which is bonded to an oxygen
• The general formula for esters is RCOOR'

Ester Reactions

• Esterification = a reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid.
• Hydrolysiis reactions break down ester compounds, separating them back into their original alcohol and carboxylic acid.

Amides

• Amides form through reactions between amines and carboxylic acids
• The amide functional group is found frequently in natural molecules like proteins
• They may contain hydroxyl or hydrogen atoms attached

Amide Hydrolysis

• Amide bonds are broken apart by hydrolysis, a process that involves water .
• Hydrolysis may involve strong acids or bases

Summary of Functional Groups

• Aldehydes: At least one hydrogen atom
• Ketones: Two carbon groups attached (no hydrogen)
• Carboxylic acids: Hydroxyl group attached to the carbonyl carbon
• Esters: Contain oxygen attached to the carbonyl carbon
• Alcohols: Hydroxyl group directly bound to a carbon
• Ethers: Oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups
• Amines: Nitrogen attached to one or more alkyl or aryl
• Thiols: Sulphur equivalent to alcohol