American Revolution: Naval Warfare

American Revolution

• The American colonies started with a limited naval force, relying mainly on merchant vessels
• American privateers and naval ships significantly disrupted British trade
• This led to increased marine insurance rates and appeals to the British Crown to end the war
• The Continental Congress authorized the creation of the Continental Navy in October 1775
• By the end of 1777, American privateers and naval ships had captured over 500 British vessels
• By the war's end, approximately 1,500 British vessels were captured
• Despite being outnumbered, the Continental Navy achieved some early victories, such as the raid on a British colony in the Bahamas
• Benedict Arnold's actions on Lake Champlain forced the British to build a fleet to counter them
• This delayed the British attack on Fort Ticonderoga and contributed to the victory at Saratoga, the turning point of the Revolution
• American naval actions forced the British to allocate resources, stretching their naval capacity
• France, Spain, and the Netherlands entered the war, changing the naval dynamic
• French naval superiority and reinforcements were decisive in defeating the British at Yorktown
• Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States with the signing of the Peace of Paris on 3 September 1783

The Barbary Wars

• The Barbary Wars (1801-1805 and 1815) involved the United States' efforts to combat piracy by the Barbary States of North Africa
• The Bashaw of Tripoli demanded increased tribute from the U.S.
• President Jefferson responded by sending a Navy squadron to blockade Tripoli
• Key events included American victories, such as those by the Enterprise and the burning of the frigate Philadelphia to prevent its use by Tripoli
• Army Captain William Eaton led a daring raid with Hamet Karamanli to capture Derna
• A peace treaty was made where the United States no longer needed to pay tribute to Tripoli
• After the War of 1812, President Madison requested war against Algiers because they sided with the British
• Decatur led a squadron to Algiers, inflicting damage and dictating peace terms
• This included the end of tribute payments and the release of enslaved Americans
• The defeat of Algiers marked the decline of Barbary pirate dominance
• Piracy continued to some extent; the Barbary States' power was significantly diminished, especially after the French conquest of Algeria in 1830

War of 1812

• The American Navy secured notable victories in the Atlantic and on the Great Lakes early
• Commodore Thomas Tingey ordered the burning of the strategically valuable Washington Navy Yard when British troops marched into Washington, D.C., to prevent it from falling into enemy hands
• A U.S. Navy squadron soundly defeated a British flotilla on Lake Champlain
• The Royal Navy bombarded Fort McHenry, but the fort's defenders prevailed, and the British fleet withdrew
• U.S. frigate Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, defeated HMS Guerriere
• British cannonballs were seen rebounding from Constitution's sides, earning the ship the nickname "Old Ironsides."
• U.S. frigate United States, commanded by Captain Stephen Decatur, Jr. defeated British frigate Macedonian in a two-hour battle
• Constitution, commanded by Commodore William Bainbridge, defeated HMS Java in a fierce three-hour battle
• A U.S. Navy squadron commanded by Master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry secured Lake Erie after a decisive three-hour engagement with a British flotilla
• Frigate Chesapeake escaped from Boston Harbor and engaged HMS Shannon, as the powerful British Royal Navy blockaded many U.S. ports
• The Royal Navy defeated American frigate Essex
• U.S. Army, militia, and gun batteries manned by U.S. Navy sailors repulsed British forces at the Battle of New Orleans
• The war's last naval engagement (the capture of a British merchant vessel by sloop-of-war USS Peacock off Java) occurred as late as 30 June

Mexican-American War

• The Navy played a significant role through blockades and operations on both the Pacific coast and Gulf of Mexico
• Under Commodores John Sloat and Robert Stockton, the Pacific Squadron secured the California campaign
• This led to the U.S. claiming Monterey, San Francisco, and San Diego
• Commodore Matthew Perry navigated Mexican rivers and waterways to capture enemy strongholds and disrupt supply lines
• Perry also collaborated with General Winfield Scott to land over 22,000 troops in Vera Cruz in March 1847
• The coordination between the Navy and General Scott's army led to the swift capture of Mexico City following the Vera Cruz landings
• The U.S. Naval battery also played a role in the bombardment of Vera Cruz

Civil War

• The U.S. Navy played a significant role
• The Navy patrolled 3,000 miles of coastline to cut off Confederate trade
• Aim was to prevent the Confederacy from receiving supplies from Europe
• The Union blockade aimed to cripple the Confederacy's economy, while naval control of rivers aimed to divide the Confederacy and disrupt its internal transportation
• The Navy aimed to control interior waterways, engaging Confederate fortifications on rivers like the Mississippi and James
• Confederate cruisers targeted Union merchant ships on the high seas to damage the Northern economy and weaken support for the war
• The USS Kearsarge sank the CSS Alabama off the coast of France The USS Alliance rammed and sank the Florida in Hampton Roads
• International relations were influenced, particularly with European powers like Britain and France, concerning recognition of the Confederacy
• The Navy supported the capture of key Southern ports and coastal areas

The Clash of the Ironclads

• At the breakout of war Union forces abandoned the Gosport Navy Yard (today its the Norfolk Navy yard)
• Fearing an uprising, Commodore Charles McCauley, ordered the yard burnt to not let war supplies fall into confederate control
• The burning was insufficient
• The USS was at the yard for repairs and refitting, and was also burned and scuttled
• The Merrimack’s hull was only damaged above the water line
• Confederates refloat the hull and prepared the designs for transforming Merrimack
• Yard workers converted the burned-out vessel into a casemate ironclad ram, which was renamed CSS Virginia over nine months
• Iron plating protected everything above the water, but its weight contributed to the vessel's deep draft of 22 feet
• Limited iron supply and production capability slowed down the construction of the jury-rigged ironclad
• Confederates plans for Merrimack, led to the Federal's need to counter this threat
• This need led to the establishment of the ironclad board
• Plans quickly became a reality with the rushed construction of the USS Monitor
• The USS Monitor had a very low freeboard, with only around 18 inches of space between the waterline and the deck
• Her primary armament was two 11-inch Dahlgren smoothbore cannons, which were located inside its rotating turret
• As an unfinished ironclad launched on 30 January 1862 from the New York Navy Yard

First Day of Battle

• March 8, 1862 the CSS Virginia, accompanied by the CSS Beaufort and CSS Raleigh, sailed to Hampton Roads to break the union blockade
• CSS Virginia engaged and rammed the USS Cumberland, sinking it
• CSS Beaufort fired at Congress as the Confederate fleet approached and prepared to pass the frigate
• CSS Virginia fired broadside into Congress as they passed, but maintained a course for the USS Cumberland
• Ram of Virginia hit the starboard side of the Cumberland a sloop-of-war
• Drawing back and firing again, the Confederate ironclad rammed the sinking ship a second time
• Exchanged fire until the Congress ran aground and was later burned
• The CSS Jamestown and CSS Patrick Henry (originally a side-wheel, passenger steamer converted into gunboats) along with the Virginia, then make for the grounded USS Minnesota
• Virginia could not get closer than a mile due to its deep draft and could not engage from the distance
• Confederates slipped away from the crippled frigate after darkness came and moved off to Sewell's Point to await a new day

Second Day of Battle

• March 9, 1862, the Virginia came out to finish the battle from the day before, heading towards the Minnesota
• The Monitor appeared and opened fire, causing the CSS Jamestown and CSS Patrick Henry to retreat
• The Virginia remained to face the Monitor
• Two ironclad ships circled each other and exchanged fire for four hours
• Both ships received damage, but neither ship could inflict the fatal blow due to the iron armor
• Sailors inside did receive injuries
• The Monitor and Virginia withdrew from battle
• The Monitor had orders to protect the Minnesota and stayed by her until tugs freed the Minnesota from the shoal later that night
• Failed to appear the following day, the Virginia returned to the yard for repairs
• The Virginia was left alone after the battle and was unable to ascend the James River due to its deep draft; eventually, she was scuttled

The Steam Navy

• U.S. Navy experimented with steam-powered ships as early as the War of 1812
• Regular Navy warships started incorporating steam propulsion in the 1840s
• The ironclad Monitor ushered in a new age for the naval warship in both design and armament
• Demands of the Civil War in the 1860s for rapid expansion and innovation of naval ships was the primary motivation behind the first truly post-sail warships
• John Dahlgren adapted the French steam engine for the U.S. Navy, improving on both the reliability and safety of the European model
• Many steam-powered ships still retained sails for auxiliary propulsion during the transition period, or as a fuel-saving option on long voyages
• Congress authorized the construction of the Navy's first steel warships, powered by steam propulsion and carrying very heavy guns on rotating turrets in 1882
• The birth of the new steam and steel Navy in the late 19th century marked the end of the age of sail and facilitated a new age of U.S. involvement in global naval operations

Spanish-American War

• Spain declared war on the United States on 24 April
• Congress then passed a resolution declaring that a state of war had existed since 21 April
• The U.S. Navy blockaded ports in Cuba after the battleship Maine in Havana harbor exploded unexpectedly and sunk on 15 February 1898, which killed 266 American sailors
• The U.S. Navy played a crucial role
• The U.S. Navy successfully blockaded the port of Santiago under Admirals William T. Sampson and Winfield S. Schley
• Commodore George Dewey's Asiatic Squadron destroyed the entire Spanish squadron in Manila Bay
• Schley's squadron destroyed Spanish ships, including destroyer Furor, torpedo boat Plutón, and armored cruisers Infanta María Teresa, Almirante Oquendo, Vizcaya, and Cristóbal Colón
• Secretary of the Navy John D. Long ordered Captain Henry Glass, commander of the cruiser Charleston, to capture Guam

The Great White Fleet

• Consisting of sixteen new battleships, it was sent around the world to show American sea power from December 16, 1907, to February 22, 1909, by President Theodore Roosevelt
• The ships were painted white and manned by 14,000 sailors, with twenty port calls on six continents and covering 43,000 miles
• The fleet, under Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans (later replaced by Rear Admiral Charles S. Sperry), sailed from Hampton Roads, Virginia
• Locations visited include Trinidad, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Mexico, Hawaii, New Zealand, Australia, Philippines, Japan, Ceylon and Egypt
• The fleet offered aid after an earthquake in Sicily
• President Roosevelt reviewed the Fleet on February 22, 1909, as it arrived at Hampton Roads, Virginia

WWII Pacific Fleet

• The Imperial Japanese Navy launched a massive surprise attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, on Sunday morning, 7 December 1941
• Japanese carrier attack planes, including torpedo and high-level bombers, supported by fighters, struck in two waves
• The attack targeted naval and military airfields and bases
• Damage included sunken battleships and other ships
• Navy, Army, and Marine Corps facilities also suffered damage, and many airplanes were destroyed, resulting in many casualties
• American technological skill raised and repaired all but three of the ships sunk or damaged
• The anger that Americans felt in uniting the nation and translating it into a collective commitment to victory in World War II

The Battle of the Coral Sea

• Fought between the United States and Australian forces against the Japanese
• The Japanese planned to advance south and southeastward from the Bismarcks and Solomons, with the capture of Tulagi and Port Moresby as immediate objectives
• Between April 29 and May 4, Japanese forces attacked, invaded, and occupied Tulagi
• The Japanese Carrier Strike Force advanced toward the Coral Sea to destroy Allied naval forces
• Two sides exchanged air strikes over two consecutive days, beginning on May 7
• The Japanese sank USS Lexington, USS Sims, and USS Neosho, and damaged Yorktown while only losing one small carrier (Shoho) and suffering damage to a fleet carrier (Shokaku
• Allied forces were forced to withdraw from the operational area
• The Japanese advance checked
• The Japanese captured Tulagi, they were unable to capture Port Moresby
• Shokaku was severely damaged and, coupled with losses of pilots and planes, Zuikaku also did not participate in the Midway operation; this reduced Japanese carrier availability by a third
• Significance since Pearl Harbor: The Japanese advance checked
• It was also the first naval engagement in history where participating ships never sighted or fired directly at each other

The Battle of Midway

• 4-7 June 1942
• The Japanese reason for targeting Midway was to establish an eastern shield of defenses in the Central Pacific, allowing Japan to pursue its Asian policies
• The plan was to draw out the U.S. Pacific Fleet focusing on U.S. Carriers, which the Japanese carrier and battleship task forces would then destroy
• Success would have eliminated the Pacific Fleet for at least a year and provide a forward outpost for future threat warnings
• American cryptanalysts broke the Japanese navy’s general-purpose code and tentatively identified “AF” as Midway
• Predicted an attack on Midway on 4 June after examining previously intercepted messages and discovering the date cipher used in Japanese message traffic
• Admiral Nimitz used the estimate to plan American countermeasures, including reinforcement of forces on Midway
• American land-based aircraft located and attacked Japanese transports about 600 miles west of Midway Island on June 3
• On the morning of June 4, Japanese carrier aircraft bombed Midway installations
• Torpedo bombers from American carriers attacked while dive bombers from USS Enterprise bombed and fatally damaged carriers Kaga and Akagi, along with SBDs from Yorktown bombed and wrecked carrier Soryu
• Japanese counter-attack: The Japanese carrier Hiryu launched dive bombers that temporarily disabled Yorktown
• Dauntlesses from Enterprise mortally damaged Hiryu in a strike around 1700
• Japanese submarine I-168 torpedoed the Yorktown and sank destroyer USS Hammann (DD-412) on June 6
• The U.S. Navy inflicted a defeat on the Imperial Japanese Navy with the Japanese losing four carriers and the U.S. losing one

The Guadalcanal Campaign

• Took place from August 1942 to February 1943
• U.S. Navy’s 1st Marine Division landed on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in the eastern Solomons on 7-8 August 1942

Battle of Savo Island

• The Imperial Japanese Navy launched a night surface attack on Allied ships screening the Allied landing force near Savo Island with Allied forces caught unaware and suffering a significant defeat on 9 August 1942
• U.S. and Japanese ships engaged in attacks via carrier-based or shore-based aircraft during Operation Ka, which occurred from 23–25 August 1942
• A U.S. task force commanded by Rear Admiral Norman Scott surprised Japanese cruisers and destroyers at night, near Guadalcanal on 11 October 1942
• The U.S. forces engaged them, resulting in sinking a Japanese cruiser and destroyer, with another cruiser badly damaged
• One U.S. destroyer was sunk, and a cruiser and another destroyer were heavily damaged
• The Japanese retreated, abandoning their bombardment mission, while their supply convoy successfully reached Guadalcanal
• The Battle of Cape Esperance provided a morale boost to the Navy after a previous defeat
• U.S. and Japanese ships and aircraft confronted each other as U.S. forces halted a Japanese ground offensive on 26 October 1942, at the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands
• A series of air and sea engagements occurred with U.S. naval forces ultimately preventing Japanese bombardment and sinking many troop transports and resulted as Japanese tried to reinforce their ground forces at the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 12–15 November 1942
• A U.S. Navy task force attempted to surprise and destroy Japanese destroyers dispatched to resupply Japanese ground forces by utilizing their still relatively new surface-search radar, on 30 November 1942 at the Battle of Tassafaronga
• However, the other Japanese warships reacted quickly and fired numerous very effective Type 93 “Long Lance” torpedoes, sinking one U.S. cruiser and heavily damaging three others.
• The Japanese able to to escape, but also did not land their supplies and reinforcements, with deleterious effects for their forces on Guadalcanal
• Known as Operation Ke, the Japanese withdrawal from Guadalcanal occurred because the U.S. Navy blocked any meaningful resupply effort to the Japanese troops in February 1943
• Japanese forces on Guadalcanal could no longer mount effective attacks on the US forces due to the lack of ammunition, food and reinforcements with The evacuation planned in late 1942 and executed in January and February 1943 (1)
• The withdrawal marked a turning point in the Pacific War, with the Allies gaining the upper hand
• The last troops evacuated the island on 7 February
• The Allied victory on Guadalcanal, along with the Battle of Midway, marked a turning point in the Pacific War, putting Japan on the defensive

The Battle of Iwo Jima

• It was a major military campaign between the U.S. and Japan during World War II
• The U.S. military targeted Iwo Jima to secure airfields for fighter escorts and emergency landings for bombing missions over Japan
• Allied planners thought the radar station on Iwo Jima provided early warning to Japan’s home islands of U.S. bombing raids, they had learned after the battle the radar station not capable of providing effective early warning
• US Forces commenced intense bombing raids and naval bombardment of Iwo Jima for three days before troops first assaulted the beaches
• General Tadamichi Kuribayashi prepared extensive defenses, utilizing tunnels and fortified positions
• Overall goal and intended targets: The Japanese goal was to delay the inevitable and inflict the highest possible cost; Americans subjected to a step-by-step battle of attrition, slowly retreating from one well-defended killing zone to the next, and to delay the enemy and inflicting maximum casualties
• Initiated an amphibious assault on February 19, 1945
• The Marines faced intense fire from Japanese positions
• The 5th Marine Division isolated Mount Suribachi, while the 4th Marine Division advanced toward the airfields
• The Battles and Casualties:
  • Marines gradually advanced, using flame throwers and satchel charges to destroy Japanese strongpoints
  • Mount Suribachi was captured on February 23, 1945
  • Airfield No. 1 was captured soon after the initial landing, and Airfield No. 2 was secured by March 4
  • Iwo Jima was declared “secure” on March 26, 1945, though fighting continued for some time
• Heavy casualties on both sides
• Island’s airfields were used for emergency landings and search-and-rescue operations, and the strategic value was debated during the war
• The Result of Operation Detachment: U.S. forces suffered 6,871 killed and 19,217 wounded

The Battle of Leyte Gulf

• Fought from 23-26 October 1944, the battle was a Japanese response to the U.S. invasion of Leyte island in the Philippines
• Japanese Victory Plans or Sho Plans was a decisive plan to destroy the U.S. Navy in the Philippine Sea in response to the US attack on Leyte
• Japanese Forces split up, with a Northern Force of Sorties being the weakest, while on the Central Force: Admiral Takeo Kurita’s First Striking Force, and the Southern Force: Part of Central Force
• Japanese Forces planned to make a Pincer Attack with both Northern Force, and Southern Force moving fast to draw out the rest, and secure victory

The Battle

• The U.S. submarines Darter (SS-227) and Dace (SS-247) attacked the Center Force off the west coast of the Philippines, alerting commanders to a massive Japanese fleet approaching on October 23, 1944
• The U.S. Taskforce sunk 1 battleship and damaged 2 during the Battle off of Sibuyan Sea, causing the Japanese force to retreat, with the remaining US and allied forces continuing on to Leyte on October 24 1944
• The U.S. navy engaged the Japanase in 7th Fleet and the PT Boats and Destroyers after Naval retreat, however, in October 25, The Japanese engaged Taffy 3
• TF 38 planes attacked Northern Force carriers; due to heavy losses of Japanese carriers, and lack of troops to win a land battle, The US and Alllies secure Leyte

USS Indianapolis

• Safe delivery of atom bomb components to Tinian Island was the last and most important mission
• She was order to sail to Leyte Gulf for training upon making her delivery.
• There was an attack and tragic events, it Incurred a great loss and major casualties from 890, to 316 that survived
• There was a delayed discovery, a long shark attach which caused deaths
• There was also a delayed rescue
• Only 316 sailors ultimately survived

WWII Atlantic Fleet

• Pitted the German submarine force and surface units against Allied merchant convoys where Germany sought to capitalize on Britain's dependence on imports
• The Allies built up in sustainment of the forces, and were in European Support
• The navy slowly moved from Phase 1, to Phase 2, to Phase 3 moving into a full war footing

Normandy

• The U.S. Navy played a vital role in spearheading the naval component of the D-Day landing, serving in a variety of important roles before, during, and after the landings
• The Main points: The Americans led the charge, they had support, they provided close attack, made a task force, and had great control
• The U.S. sent nearly 132,500+ men ashore on D-Day

Korean War

• It happened during the phase after WW2 until the start of the Korean War
• The active Navy ship drastically reduced with a Pacific fleet of about 158 ships
• In the main attack, the U.N. assault, known as Operation Chromite, was there to stop NKPA and to retreat from South Korea
• Joint Task Force (JTF) 7: Vice Admiral Arthur D. Struble's Joint Task Force 7, comprised of about 230 ships with support and air support as well
• Naval Forces with James H Doyle initiated an attack on Inchon on September 13 1950

The Vietnam War

• Ho Chi Minh lead lead the Viet Minh, a broader nationalist movement and secured independence after the French defeat
• There was a naval support which included Operation Passage to Freedom: The Geneva Accords allowed 300 days of free movement between North and South Vietnam
• The U.S. Navy Task Force 90 mainly transported refugees from North to South Vietnam, ending 18 May 1955
• Incident: Gulf of Tonkin: Maddox(DD-731) was pursued by 3 North boat, and there were back contacts later in the war
• The Multifaceted Role of Navy:
  • Operations included Market Time: A joint attempt, Sea Dragon: Operations Sealords and Game Warden were launched
• Stations Included:
  • North Korea: Linebacker, Ends Sweep, and the Evac Fleet

USS Forrestal

• On July 29, 1967 USS Forrestal was off the coast of Vietnam
• While preparing a second strike, a signal ignited the engine killing 134, 50 in their sleep, and 161 injured

USS The Pueblo

• Capt Commander Lloyd took out Peta, and there was bad communication and a tough time
• The Navy gave Bucha to the torturers due to the horrible nature of his war crime