American History War of 1812 Quiz

Wars are destructive and tragic. They are also messy and complicated, as

are the reasons causing them. The War of 1812 is no exception. A number

of factors caused the United States to declare war, once again, on Britain.

Despite gaining their independence from Britain in 1783, many Americans

felt that the British did not respect this independence. They believed that

the British were still trying to interfere in American politics and government

decision making.

THE NAPOLEONIC WARS

By 1812, Britain was already heavily engaged in a war with France.

Napoleon Bonaparte, an ambitious military leader, had become the ruler of

France. The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) pitted the French Empire against

other European powers, including Britain and Spain. Napoleon was in a

position to overtake Britain.

With Britain focused on fighting France in

Europe, the Americans saw an opportunity

to gain control of North America. Neither

the Americans nor the British thought

that Upper and Lower Canada would be

significant in this conflict. However, both

powers soon discovered the importance of

these colonies in determining the outcome

of the war.

Examine the painting in Figure 6.1.

What does the painting reveal about

how Americans viewed their relationship

with Britain?

ENFORCED MILITARY SERVICE

The British navy ruled the high seas. In times of war, however, sailors were often

in short supply. During the French Revolution (1789–1799) and the Napoleonic

Wars, the British Royal Navy authorized the search of port cities in Europe and

in the colonies to round up men to serve in the navy. The men would have no

choice but to join the navy. This practice was called impressment. The units

that enforced this military service were called press gangs.

As well, British navy captains chased down American merchant vessels

in search of British citizens who were trying to escape impressment by

working for the United States. Since citizenship was often difficult to prove,

American citizens were sometimes forced into service in the British navy.

Estimates suggest that 10 000 American sailors were forced to serve on

British ships between 1793 and 1812.

The United States viewed impressment as an offence to national pride and

the personal freedom of Americans. This was apparent in an 1807 incident

that occurred off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia. In June 1807, HMS Leopard,

a British warship, fired on USS Chesapeake, an American ship, for failing to

stop so that the British could search for deserters. Deserters are soldiers

who leave military service without permission. Although the numbers vary,

some sources indicate three men on the Chesapeake were killed and another

18 were wounded. Others were taken prisoner by the British and put on

trial, including three Americans. The Americans were enraged. Examine an

illustration of the incident, shown in Figure 6.2. Why was impressment a

source of tension between the United States and Britain?

FIGURE 6.1 American artist

John Archibald Woodside created

this painting, entitled We Owe

Allegiance to No Crown, in 1814.

“Crown” is a reference to the British

monarchy. Analyze: How does

the artist indicate that the United

States is independent from Britain?

FIGURE 6.2 This 1884 engraving

by American illustrator Howard

Pyle shows a British press gang

from HMS Leopard investigating

USS Chesapeake on June 22, 1807.

Analyze: What does the body

language of the inspectors and of

the man being inspected tell you

about the practice of impressment?

impressment the act of

forcing individuals to serve

in the military with or

without notice

deserter a soldier who

abandons military service

without permission

166 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 167

TECUMSEH AND TENSKWATAWA

Tecumseh was a Shawnee chief and military leader. He opposed the expansion

of American territories into the Ohio River Valley. His brother, Tenskwatawa,

was a spiritual leader of the Shawnee. The brothers had similar goals for

First Nations in America. Tenskwatawa wanted to unify First Nations peoples

as one community. Tecumseh proposed an Indian Confederacy in which all

First Nations would unite and live on protected lands. His goal was to reclaim

territory for the confederacy that had been lost to American settlers. Look

at Figure 6.4, which shows a confrontation in 1810 between Tecumseh and

William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory. Tecumseh was

protesting Harrison’s role in acquiring First Nations lands, which paved the way

for expanding American settlements. What details has the artist used to suggest

a peaceful resolution to the issue was not possible?

Tecumseh’s confederacy was dealt a significant blow on November 7,

1811. Tenskwatawa and his warriors launched an attack against Harrison’s

forces, despite warnings from Tecumseh to wait until the confederacy was

united and strong. The Americans defeated Tenskwatawa at the Battle of

Tippecanoe. Tecumseh went on to lead First Nations warriors against the

Americans during the War of 1812. Tecumseh’s confederacy allied with the

British in part to defend the First Nations way of life and lands from the

ongoing expansion of the United States.

FIGURE 6.4 This undated

engraving, called Genl.

Harrison & Tecumseh, was

created by American illustrator

John Reuben Chapin. The

colour was added at a later

date. It depicts a clash between

Shawnee Chief Tecumseh and

Governor Harrison at Harrison’s

Indiana home in 1810. Analyze: With

whose perspective—Tecumseh’s or

Harrison’s—do you think the artist is

more sympathetic? Why?

RESTRICTIONS ON TRADE

Britain’s conflict with France also affected the ability of the United States

to trade with other countries. As Britain gained the upper hand on the

seas, Napoleon tried to destroy his enemy economically. In 1806, Napoleon

ordered European nations under French control to stop trading with Britain.

Britain responded by using its naval power to block cargo ships that were

entering or leaving those European ports. In 1807, Britain issued laws, called

Orders in Council, that called for neutral nations (those not taking sides

in the war, such as the United States) to stop trading with France and its

allies. Read the excerpt in Figure 6.3 by Thomas Jefferson, the American

president from 1801 to 1809. How do you think the United States reacted to

the restrictions?

Britain did not consider taking American ships that challenged its Orders

in Council to be an act of aggression. The United States held a different view.

In response, the United States passed its own laws to restrict trade involving

Britain and France. The Embargo Act, 1807 was intended to slow or stop

the movement of American goods that supplied the British and French war

efforts. The Embargo Act, 1807 backfired, however. Rather than achieving

its goal of getting Britain to back off, the legislation further harmed the

American economy and its citizens. American farmers and merchants were

not able to sell or trade their goods abroad.

CHALLENGE TO EXPANSION

Another source of tension was the British support for the creation of

neutral First Nations territories. The Americans believed that they needed

to protect American settlements on the southern and western frontiers,

in places such as Ohio and Kentucky, from the Shawnee and other

First Nations. The Shawnee and their allies were equally determined

to stop the American expansion and drive out the settlers from

First Nations lands. Some Americans believed that the British in Upper

and Lower Canada were providing weapons to First Nations resisting

American settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.

FIGURE 6.3 This excerpt is from a

letter written by former American

president Jefferson to Consul

James Maury on June 16, 1815. As

an American consul in Great Britain,

Maury represented the interests

of the United States in England.

Analyze: What British practices

described in this excerpt do you

think the Americans would view as

grounds for war?

“[Britain] forbade us to trade with any nation without entering

and paying duties in their ports on both the outward and inward cargo.

Thus, to carry a cargo of cotton from Savannah to St. Mary’s, and take

returns in fruits, for example, our vessel was to go to England, enter and

pay a duty on her cottons there, return to St. Mary’s, then go back to

England to enter and pay a duty on her fruits, and then return to Savannah,

after crossing the Atlantic four times, and paying tributes [payments] on

both cargoes to England, instead of the direct passage of a few hours. And

taking ships not doing this, the [British say], is no aggression.”

— Thomas Jefferson, former American president

What long-term impact

do you think Britain’s

conflicts with France

and the United States

had on Canada?

168 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 169

AMERICAN EXPECTATIONS

South Carolina congressman John C. Calhoun was another well-known

War Hawk, like Clay. Based on his statement in Figure 6.7, what challenges

does he anticipate from an invasion of Upper and Lower Canada?

During his presidency, Jefferson had tried to avoid another war with

Britain. On August 4, 1812, however, Jefferson wrote a letter to journalist

and military officer Colonel William Duane. Figure 6.9 is an excerpt from

Jefferson’s letter. How does he suggest that America could, once and for all,

secure its independence?

On June 18, 1812, the United States officially declared war on

Britain. In his proclamation released the next day, shown in Figure 6.8,

President Madison mentions love of country as a motivating force.

THE CALL FOR WAR

Expanding American settlement farther and farther west was a priority

for many American politicians throughout the 1800s. Many Americans

viewed the takeover of North America as not only their duty, but also their

right. They believed it was their mission to spread American culture and

“civilization” throughout as much of the continent as possible. For some,

this mission had a religious connection. Examine Figure 6.5. The angelic

figure represents the spirit of America, leading settlers westward and driving

First Nations peoples off their land.

WAR HAWKS

Several American politicians under President James Madison, Thomas

Jefferson’s successor, supported a war with Britain. They were concerned

about Britain’s interference in American shipping and

exports. They were also concerned about Britain’s challenge

to westward expansion.

Nicknamed War Hawks because of their demand for

armed conflict, these politicians pressured President

Madison to take action. One particularly vocal War Hawk

was Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky. Read the excerpt from

one of his speeches in Figure 6.6. What reasons does Clay

give for supporting a war with Britain?

FIGURE 6.6 This excerpt is from a speech delivered to

Congress by Clay on February 22, 1810. Analyze: What

does Clay mean by “extinguish the torch that lights up

savage warfare”?

FIGURE 6.9 This excerpt is from a

letter written by Jefferson to Duane

on August 4, 1812. Analyze: What

threat did Jefferson think Upper

and Lower Canada would pose to

the United States?

FIGURE 6.7 Calhoun delivered

this statement in March 1812, three

months before the United States

declared war. Analyze: How are

the statements in Figures 6.6 and

6.7 similar?

FIGURE 6.8 President Madison issued this

proclamation of war against Britain on June 19, 1812.

Analyze: What do you think the terms of a “just, and an

honourable peace” would be for the American people?

“The conquest of Canada is in

your power.... Is it nothing to the British

nation—is it nothing to the pride of her

monarch to have the last of the immense

North American possessions wrested

[taken] from his dominion [control]? Is it

nothing to us to extinguish the torch that

lights up savage warfare? Is it nothing to

acquire the entire fur trade connected

with that country?”

— Senator Henry Clay

“I see, as you do, the difficulties & defects we have to

encounter in war, and should expect disasters ... but the weakness of

our enemy there will make our first errors innocent.... The acquisition

[capture] of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Québec, will

be a mere matter of marching, and will give us experience for the attack

of Halifax the next, and the final expulsion of England from the

American continent.”

— Thomas Jefferson, former American president

“I believe that in four weeks from the time a declaration of

war is heard on our frontier, the whole of Upper Canada and a part of

Lower Canada will be in our power.”

— Congressman John C. Calhoun

And I do moreover exhort [urge] all the good people

of the United States, as they love their country ... that

they exert themselves in preserving order, in promoting

concord [harmony], in maintaining the authority and the

efficacy of the laws, and in supporting and invigorating all

the measures which may be adopted by the Constituted

Authorities, for obtaining a speedy, just, and an

honourable peace.

FIGURE 6.5 This 1872 painting by

John Gast is entitled American

Progress and represents American

ideas of expansion into the West.

Analyze: What symbols in this

painting represent American ways

of life?

How might

America’s idea of

westward expansion

affect future relations

with Canada?

170 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 171

MAKING CONNECTIONS

1. How does archaeological evidence provide a more

complete understanding of the past than just

written or oral evidence alone?

2. What fields of study would help prepare someone

for a career in underwater archaeology?

We can learn a lot about past events by examining

primary sources, such as the diary entry by

Anne Prevost and the quote from Jacob Cline.

We can also learn about past events by studying

historical sites. Archaeology is the study of history

through the excavation of sites and the analysis of

artifacts and other physical remains.

Jonathan Moore, shown in Figure 6.13, is an

underwater archaeologist with Parks Canada. He

has a particular interest in the War of 1812. He and

his team aim to protect “those parts of Canada’s

history found underwater.” Many of the battles in

the War of 1812 were fought on the water. Sunken

ships still remain at the battle sites.

Moore has been interested in archaeology since

he was very young. At 14, he began archaeological

work through school programs. He participated in

excavations throughout high school and learned

how to scuba dive in university. He now spends half

of the year conducting “diving fieldwork” all around

Canada. He spends the other half of the year in his

Ottawa office, researching sites and writing reports,

to prepare for the next fieldwork season.

Recently, Moore led an underwater survey of

two American warships, USS Hamilton and USS

Scourge, both of which sank in Lake Ontario on

August 8, 1813. These wrecks are well preserved

at the bottom of the lake and were accessed by

remotely operated vehicles. According to Moore,

the survey was “like stepping back in time.” The

intact hulls of the ships contain a treasure trove of

artifacts, such as cannons, that provide historians

with evidence to help them understand the past.

HISTORY AT WORK UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGIST

1. CAUSE AND CONSEQUENCE What reasons did the

United States have for declaring war on Britain

in 1812?

2. COMMUNICATE Identify what you think was the

primary cause of the War of 1812. Debate your

choice in a small group to reach an agreement.

3. INTERPRET AND ANALYZE How do you think the

War of 1812 could have been avoided?

4. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE For whom do you

think the outbreak of the War of 1812 was most

relevant: the Americans, the British, First Nations,

or Canadians? Why?

CHECK-IN

CANADIAN EXPECTATIONS

The Americans were very confident that they would easily win the war.

They did not consider that people in Upper and Lower Canada would

stand up to them. Examine the words of the young British colonists in

Figures 6.11 and 6.12. How do their perspectives compare with those of the

American politicians in Figures 6.6, 6.7, and 6.9?

REACTIONS IN UPPER AND

LOWER CANADA

People in Upper and Lower Canada could sense that dangerous times

were ahead. The Americans had fought for their independence from

Britain in the American Revolution, but the American settlers in

Upper and Lower Canada were mostly content to remain loyal to the

British Crown.

However, within days of President Madison’s declaration of war

with Britain, the police in Québec City issued the notice shown in

Figure 6.10, advising all American citizens to leave or face arrest. Under

what circumstances do you think a notice like this could be issued in

Canada today?

FIGURE 6.10 This notice, issued on June 29, 1812, indicates that

American citizens are no longer welcome in Québec City. Analyze:

What impact do you think this notice had on families and communities?

Notice is hereby given, that all Subjects or Citizens of the

said United States, and all persons claiming American

Citizenship, are ordered to quit the City of Québec ... on

pain of arrest.

FIGURE 6.11 Prevost was 17 years old when she wrote this entry in her

diary on June 25, 1812. Analyze: What are Prevost’s feelings toward the

United States?

FIGURE 6.12 Cline was only 13 years old when he

stood up to the invading American soldiers in 1813.

Analyze: Why might a young colonist stand up to the

American soldiers?

“On this day I saw nothing before me but my

Father’s honour and glory. Although I knew how small

a force we had to defend the Canadas, such was my

confidence in his talents and fortune, that I did not feel

the slightest apprehension [uneasiness] of any reverse. I

thought those abominable [morally disgusting] Yankees

deserved a good drubbing [beating] for having dared to

think of going to War with England.”

— Anne Prevost, daughter of Sir George Prevost,

commander-in-chief of Canada and commander of the

British forces in North America

“The Americans were in high

spirits, and when I said I was Canadian,

one of the officers laughed and said,

‘You’ll soon be under the Yankey

government, my boy.’ I was sassy, like

most boys of my age, and I said, ‘I’m not

so sure about that.’”

— Jacob Cline, British colonist

FIGURE 6.13 Jonathan Moore, taking part in diving fieldwork.

172 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 173

The War of 1812 was fought on land and on water. However, the United

States was at a disadvantage at sea. Britain had one of the largest and most

impressive naval forces in the world. Because of this, the Americans needed

to find another way to launch their attacks against British forces. They

decided to focus on the colonies in Canada.

THE AMERICANS SEND A WARNING

Brigadier General William Hull was a high-ranking officer in the American

military during the War of 1812. On July 12, 1812, he issued a proclamation

to the colonists in Upper Canada. Read an excerpt from his proclamation

in Figure 6.14. Like many Americans, Hull believed that the colonists

in Upper Canada would not resist the American invasion, because the

Americans would free and protect the colonists from British control. At the

same time, he warned the colonists against joining the British soldiers in

fighting against the Americans.

NEW BRITISH MILITARY STRATEGY

Major-General Sir Isaac Brock was a British military commander in

Upper Canada during the War of 1812. Strengthening Upper Canada’s

defences was Brock’s first priority. Read the quote in Figure 6.15. It is an

excerpt from a letter Brock wrote to Lieutenant-Colonel Edward Baynes,

four months before the Americans declared war. Baynes was the assistant

to Commander-in-Chief Sir George Prevost. What is Brock’s main message

to Baynes?

Brock believed that the only way that Upper Canada could defend itself

from an American invasion was to control Michilimackinac, an island in

present-day northern Michigan. As you learned in Chapter 3, this was the

location of a battle between First Nations and the British in 1763. Brock

believed that controlling the island meant controlling the Upper Great

Lakes. This would fend off an American invasion. Brock was right. A large

group of 400 First Nations warriors, 200 fur traders, and 46 British officers

gathered together as a show of British force. When they reached the island,

the American commander was offered a chance to surrender before a full-

on attack. He accepted. When Hull learned of this victory, he abandoned

his invasion of Upper Canada and retreated to Detroit. Figure 6.16 shows

British troops and their allies preparing for battle. How would you feel if a

window in your home overlooked this scene?

FIGURE 6.14 This excerpt is from Hull’s proclamation to Canadians on July 12, 1812, in

Sandwich (present-day Windsor), Upper Canada. Analyze: How do you think the Loyalists felt

about the invasion and proclamation?

FIGURE 6.15 This excerpt is from a

letter written by Brock to Baynes

on February 12, 1812. Analyze:

Why does Brock believe that most

of the country would need to

be evacuated? FIGURE 6.16 This 1997 painting by Keith Rocco, entitled British Troops at Michilimackinac,

shows the rallying of British troops at Michilimackinac on July 17, 1812. Analyze: What evidence

do you see in this painting that places the British at an advantage?

“Inhabitants of Canada!

After thirty years of peace and prosperity, the United States have been

driven to arms. The injuries and aggressions, the insults and indignities

of Great Britain have once more left no alternative but manly resistance

or unconditional submission. The army under my command has invaded

your country; the standard of the Union [the American flag] now waves

over the territory of Canada. To the peaceful unoffending inhabitants, it

brings neither danger nor difficulty. I come to find enemies, not to make

them; I come to protect, not to injure you ... I have a force which will

break down all opposition, and that force is but the vanguard of a much

greater—If, contrary to your own interest, and the just expectations of

my country, you should take part in the approaching contest, you will

be considered and treated as enemies, and the horrors and calamities of

war will stalk before you.”

— Brigadier General William Hull

“I set out with

declaring my full

conviction, that

unless Detroit and

Michilimackinac be

both in our possession

immediately at the

commencement of

hostilities, not only the

district of Amherstburg,

but most probably the

whole country as far

as Kingston, must be

evacuated.”

— Major-General

Sir Isaac Brock

If you were

Hull, how would you

have communicated

to the Canadians to

persuade them to join

the American side in the

fight against

the British?

174 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 175

Battle of Lundy’s Lane

July 25, 1814

Siege of Fort Erie

August 13, 1814

KEY EVENTS IN THE WAR OF 1812

Most of the battles in the War of 1812 took place in

Upper and Lower Canada. The people in Upper Canada

suffered the most because many key battles were fought

on their soil, as the map and photos in Figure 6.17 show.

In total, there were over 170 battles, raids, skirmishes

(unplanned fighting between small armies or fleets), and

campaigns (series of military operations) during the War of

1812. Figure 6.18 shows a timeline of some of the important

events from the start of the war to its end in January 1815.

FIGURE 6.18 This timeline shows several significant battles and events from the War of 1812.

American victories are in blue, British victories are in red, and events are shown in black.

Analyze: What do you notice about the progression of the war?

1807 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815

Siege of

Detroit

Battle

of York

Battle of

Tippecanoe

Battle of

Lake Erie

Battle of the Thames

Battle of

Crysler’s

Farm

Burning of

Washington, D.C.

Battle of

Plattsburgh

Battle of

Lundy’s Lane

Battle of

Châteauguay

Battle of

Queenston Heights

Siege of

Fort Erie

Battle of

Beaver

Dams

LOWER CANADA UPPER

CANADA

ATLANTIC

OCEAN Lake Erie

Lake