American History Quiz: Civilizations and Conflicts

The first people arrived in the Americas 10000-40000 years ago from Asia by crossing the Bering land bridge. Until 1492 the Americas were completely isolated and by that point had already established prospering civilizations.

The Maya civilization began as early as 2000 BC and continued to have a strong presence in Mesoamerica for over 3000 years until the Spanish arrived in 1519 AD. They developed one of the most advanced civilizations in the Americas.

The Aztec Empire was located in central Mexico. It ruled much of the region from the 1400s until the Spanish arrived in 1519. Known for being fierce and bloodthirsty, they were aggressive in battle and engaged in human sacrifice to appease their gods.

The Inca Empire was centered in Peru and ruled over much of the west coast of South America from the 1400s to the time of the Spanish arrival in 1532. Machu Picchu is a famous example of their impressive architecture.

The Arawak are a group of Indigenous peoples of northern South America and the Caribbean. They are known for being a generally peaceful tribe.

The Taíno were an Arawak people who were the indigenous people of the Caribbean and Florida. At the time of European contact in the late 15th century, they were the principal inhabitants of most of Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico.

The Powhatan Indians were a group of Eastern Woodland Indians who occupied the coastal plain of Virginia.

The Powhatan Confederacy was a group of Native American tribes that lived in the area that is now Virginia, Maryland, and part of North Carolina. The confederacy was formed by Chief Powhatan, also known as Wahunsonacock.

They were North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family.

They were Native people who lived in the Ottawa Valley at the time and had a strategic advantage in fur trade.

The rivalry between the Iroquois and Algonquian stemmed from competition over land, resources, and fur trade alliances with European powers.

The transfer of plants, animals, foods, diseases, precious metals, commodities, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas across the New World and the Old World.

A raw material or primary agricultural product that can be bought and sold, such as copper or coffee.

A nationalist economic policy that seeks to maximize exports and minimize imports.

A staple crop like maize, which transformed global agriculture by spreading to Europe, Africa, and Asia.

A highly profitable cash crop for European colonies, driving their economy and contributing to the demand for labor.

A cash crop that fueled the plantation economy in the Caribbean and the Americas.

A crop that is grown for the purpose of being sold and making a profit.

A Spanish labor system that rewarded conquerors with the labor of conquered non-Christian peoples.

A social organizing system that attempted to ascribe social status based on a person's socio-cultural lineage.

The process of establishing and maintaining control over a foreign territory.

A corporate colony was established by joint-stock companies and governed by a charter granted by the crown.

A royal colony was directly controlled by the king through a royal governor.

The first legislative assembly in America, established in Virginia in 1619, giving settlers the power to elect representatives and make local laws.

A type of colonial administration where the king grants full governing rights to an individual or individuals, often favored by the monarchy.

The ability of colonial assemblies to control taxation and government spending, giving them influence over governors.

The land grant system that awarded settlers 50 acres of land for each person they brought to the colony, incentivizing the importation of laborers.

A term used to describe divisions in Protestant churches during the First Great Awakening, with 'Old Lights' upholding traditional worship and 'New Lights' supporting revivalist preaching.

The English settlers on the Mayflower created this self-governing agreement in 1620, aiming for a functioning social structure and an early form of democracy in the Americas.

A period of religious revivalism that swept through the American colonies from the 1730s to the 1770s.

The belief that all people have access to the inner light of God, emphasizing spiritual equality, pacifism, consensus, and simplicity.

A colony established with the goal of spreading Christianity and creating a model society, often influenced by religious persecution in Europe.

A colony based in New England characterized by its harsh winters, rocky land, and limited disease spread.

A colony established in the middle colonies, possessing a middling climate, fertile soil, and the Hudson River Valley.

A colony established in the Chesapeake region, known for its marshy swamps, rich animal and plant life, and fertile soil for tobacco cultivation.

The conflict between the British American colonists and the French over land and resources in the Ohio River Valley, a part of the larger Seven Years' War.

A system where power is shared between the national government and state governments.

A principle stating that federal laws are supreme over state laws.

Powers specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution.

The 10th Amendment reserves powers not delegated to the federal government to the states.

The division of governmental power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

A system of checks and balances ensures no branch becomes too powerful.

The first 10 amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing basic freedoms and rights.

A policy by which the US declared neutrality in the conflict between Great Britain and France.

A treaty between the US and Spain that resolved territorial disputes and granted American ships the right to navigate the Mississippi River.

A rebellion by western Pennsylvania farmers protesting a federal tax on whiskey.

A treaty between the US and Great Britain that resolved issues related to seized ships and western territories.

An undeclared naval war between the US and France.

A political party led by Alexander Hamilton, favoring a strong central government.

A political party led by Thomas Jefferson, favoring states' rights and a limited federal government.

A political party led by Alexander Hamilton, favoring a strong central government.

A labor system where individuals agreed to work for a set period (typically 4-7 years) in exchange for passage to America, housing, and future land or money. Often used by English, Irish, and German immigrants seeking opportunity.

A permanent, forced labor system where individuals, primarily Africans, were considered property with no rights. It fueled the growth of Southern economies with labor-intensive crops.

A period (1783-1789) after the Revolutionary War where the weak central government under the Articles of Confederation struggled to address economic and political challenges.

The first government of the United States (1781-1789). It gave states significant power and limited the federal government, leading to challenges in governing effectively.

A rebellion by farmers in Massachusetts (1786-1787) who were struggling to pay debts due to economic hardship. It highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and fueled calls for a stronger national government.

A convention (1787) bringing together delegates from all states to address the shortcomings of the Articles of Confederation. Ultimately, they decided to write a new Constitution.

A plan proposed at the Constitutional Convention advocating for a strong central government with two houses of Congress, representation based on population, and a powerful executive branch.

A plan at the Constitutional Convention proposing a one-house Congress with equal representation for each state, favored by smaller states concerned with losing influence.

The compromise reached at the Constitutional Convention which created a bicameral legislature: The House of Representatives based on population and the Senate with equal representation for each state.

A compromise at the Constitutional Convention where three-fifths of the slave population was counted for both representation and taxation purposes, reflecting the Southern states' reliance on enslaved labor.

Essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, published anonymously to persuade the public to ratify the new Constitution.

Opponents of the proposed Constitution who feared it would give too much power to the federal government and limit the rights of the states.

A failed attempt by Continental Army officers, led by General Horatio Gates, to demand compensation for their service under the weakened Articles of Confederation. President Washington intervened to prevent a coup.

Fur traders from Pennsylvania and Virginia sought to trade with Native Americans in the Ohio River Valley, promising them new land to explore and control. Meanwhile, the French aimed to secure the territory for themselves by establishing a chain of forts.

A speech by President Washington, given to the disgruntled Continental Army officers during the Newburgh Conspiracy, persuading them to remain loyal to the government.

George Washington was sent by Virginia to warn the French about encroaching on British territory in the Ohio River Valley. While Washington and his allies launched a surprise attack on Fort Duquesne, they were ultimately defeated by the French.

Occurred when the Mohegan tribe, seeking to regain their power, joined the Wampanoag in war against the Puritans. Metacom, also known as King Philip, was blamed for a murder, leading to his execution and sparking a devastating conflict.

This rebellion in Virginia in 1676 arose from tensions between Native Americans and English settlers, wealthy landowners and poor settlers, and land ownership disputes.

Governor William Berkeley refused to address the concerns of farmers facing Native American attacks due to land ownership disputes. Nathaniel Bacon, leading a group of farmers, took up arms in self-defense, but Berkeley ultimately crushed their rebellion.

This rebellion occurred in the 1680s in Arizona and New Mexico. The conflict began when the Spanish attempted to eliminate Native American religion and culture, demanding complete Christian conversion.

The Spanish tried to force the Pueblo people to abandon their own traditions and completely convert to Christianity. This angered the Native Americans and contributed to the rebellion.

The Stamp Act of 1765 imposed taxes on all types of printed documents, including newspapers, pamphlets, diplomas, playing cards, and receipts. This direct tax angered many colonists, particularly lawyers, college graduates, and sailors, sparking growing resistance to British rule.

This incident in 1770 began with a group of boys harassing British soldiers by throwing snowballs and stones. A gunshot was exchanged, and the British soldiers began firing into the crowd of colonists. Five colonists were killed, further inflaming tensions between colonists and British troops.

The Tea Act of 1773 was enacted by the British government, granting a monopoly to the British East India Company for selling tea to the American colonies. Colonists, angered by this favoritism and its impact on the colonial tea trade, responded with the Boston Tea Party.

This series of acts enacted by Great Britain in 1774 were a punitive response to the Boston Tea Party. They included the Boston Port Act, the Massachusetts Government Act, the Administration of Justice Act, and the Quartering Act. These acts were designed to punish Massachusetts and tighten British control over the colonies.

This period, from the 17th to the 18th century, describes a period of relaxed British control over the American colonies. Due to the distance and preoccupation with other affairs, British officials often allowed the colonists to govern themselves, leading to a sense of independence and self-rule.

These acts, imposed by the British government, aimed to regulate trade within the British Empire. They required that colonial trade be conducted with British ships and through British ports. However, poorly enforced, colonists often smuggled goods to evade these restrictions.

The colonial experience with Salutary Neglect fostered a sense of independence and autonomy among the colonists, leading them to become accustomed to self-government and less dependent on the British crown. This contributed to the growing resentment between colonists and the British government.

This petition was sent by the Continental Congress to King George III in 1775 as a final attempt to avoid warfare. It pledged loyalty to the crown but affirmed the colonists' rights as British citizens. However, it was largely ignored by the King.

Thomas Paine, an influential writer and political thinker, wrote "Common Sense" in 1776. It argued that monarchy was an outdated and corrupt system of government, advocating for republicanism and independence from British rule. This powerful pamphlet helped to galvanize public support for the American Revolution.

This idea, advocated by Montesquieu, proposed a government with three separate branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Each branch would have its own set of powers and would be able to check and balance the power of the other branches.

The Treaty of Ghent, signed in 1814, ended the War of 1812. It restored pre-war boundaries, but no clear victor emerged. The war fueled American nationalism as Americans were angered by the stalemate and frustrated by British actions.

The Era of Good Feelings (1815-1825) was a period of relative peace and prosperity in the United States. It was characterized by a sense of national unity and a decline in political partisanship.

The American System, proposed by Henry Clay, aimed to unify the US economy by promoting industrial growth in the North, agricultural production in the West, and cotton cultivation in the South. It also advocated for a national bank, protective tariffs, and infrastructure improvements.

The Transportation Revolution was a period of significant advancements in transportation, including the construction of the National Road, canals, and steamboats. These advancements facilitated the movement of goods and people across the country.

The Missouri Compromise (1820) aimed to resolve the issue of slavery’s expansion into new Western territories by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It also established the 36°30′ North line, making states above it free and those below it slave states.

The Monroe Doctrine, issued in 1823, was a statement of US foreign policy that declared the Western Hemisphere off-limits to further colonization by European powers. It also declared that the US would remain neutral in European conflicts.

The Panic of 1819 was a severe economic downturn caused by post-war economic changes, unregulated banking, and the decline in demand for agricultural products. It resulted in widespread unemployment, bank failures, and a slowdown in westward expansion.

The Adam-Onis Treaty (1819) settled a long-standing border dispute between the US and Spain. Spain ceded Florida to the US and recognized the US claim to Oregon.

The Indian Removal Act of 1830, signed by President Andrew Jackson, authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their traditional lands in the East to designated lands west of the Mississippi River, often under harsh conditions.

The Worcester v. Georgia case (1832) involved the Cherokee Nation's suit against Georgia for attempting to abolish their government and claim their lands. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Cherokee, but President Jackson, defying the ruling, enforced the removal anyway.

The XYZ Affair was an incident in 1797 during which three French agents demanded a bribe from American diplomats in exchange for negotiating a settlement to disputes between the two nations. This affair was fueled by French seizure of American ships and ultimately led to the Quasi-War, a brief and undeclared naval conflict.

The Alien and Sedition Acts were a series of four laws enacted in 1798 by the Federalist-controlled Congress. The Alien Acts targeted immigrants, allowing the government to deport non-citizens considered dangerous and increasing the residency requirement for citizenship. The Sedition Act made it illegal to criticize the government publicly, effectively suppressing dissent and freedom of speech.

Passed in 1798 and 1799, the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions were political statements arguing that the Alien and Sedition Acts were unconstitutional. They asserted the right of states to nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional. These resolutions played a significant role in establishing the idea of states rights and the principle of nullification.

Right before leaving office, President John Adams appointed a large number of Federalist judges to federal courts. This practice became known as the 'Midnight Judges' and aimed to secure Federalist control over the judiciary for years to come. This sparked a major political controversy.

This case established judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional. It arose after President Jefferson refused to deliver commissions for judges appointed by Adams, including one for William Marbury. Marbury sued, and the Supreme Court, under Chief Justice John Marshall, ultimately declared the law granting him the judgeship unconstitutional.

The Revolution of 1800 marked a significant shift in American politics as Thomas Jefferson, leader of the Democratic-Republicans, defeated incumbent President John Adams, a Federalist. This marked the first peaceful transfer of power between opposing political parties in US history, demonstrating the strength of the democratic process and ushering in a new era of political dominance for the Democratic-Republicans.

In 1803, the United States purchased a vast territory from France, doubling the size of the nation and securing control of the Mississippi River. This acquisition, known as the Louisiana Purchase, was a controversial move for President Jefferson, who believed in adhering to a strict interpretation of the Constitution.

Led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, the Lewis and Clark Expedition was a monumental exploration of the Louisiana Territory in 1804-1806. They journeyed from Missouri River up to the Pacific Ocean, mapping the territory and gathering valuable information about the geography, flora, fauna, and Indigenous peoples.

The Marshall Court, led by Chief Justice John Marshall, played a pivotal role in shaping the American legal system. During his tenure from 1801-1835, Marshall established the principle of judicial review and expanded the power of the federal government.

The Impressment of sailors involved the British Navy forcibly seizing American sailors and forcing them to serve in the British Navy. This practice, along with other grievances, contributed to tensions between the United States and Britain and ultimately led to the War of 1812.

The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 aimed to restrict trade with Britain and France. It prohibited American ships from trading with these countries in an attempt to pressure them to respect American neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars. However, the Act failed to significantly impact their policies.

Led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, this confederacy united various Native American tribes to resist American expansion into their territories. They sought to create a vast alliance to defend their lands. The British, sensing a chance to weaken the United States, provided aid and support to the confederacy.

The War Hawks were a faction of Congress, primarily from the South and West, who strongly advocated for war against Great Britain. They argued that war was necessary to defend American honor, protect trade, and expand westward. Their calls for war resonated with public opinion and ultimately led to the declaration of war in 1812.

The Embargo Act of 1807 was enacted by President Jefferson to prevent American ships from trading with foreign nations. It aimed to force Britain and France to respect American neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars by crippling their economies, but ultimately backfired, severely damaging the American economy and leading to widespread resentment against his administration.

The belief that the expansion of slavery into new territories would tip the balance of power in favor of slaveholding states, potentially leading to national dominance by slave interests.

A congressional bill aimed at prohibiting the expansion of slavery into territories acquired from Mexico after the Mexican-American War.

A regional political party formed in opposition to the spread of slavery into new territories.

A series of five bills passed in 1850 that attempted to resolve tensions over slavery and its expansion.

A principle that allowed residents of territories to decide whether to allow slavery through voting.

A law that required Northerners to return escaped slaves to their owners, fueling resentment and conflict.

This law allowed the residents of Kansas and Nebraska to decide by popular sovereignty whether to allow slavery in their territories, effectively overturning the Missouri Compromise.

A period of violent conflict in the Kansas territory between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces.

An influential novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe that depicted the brutalities of slavery, sparking widespread anti-slavery sentiment.

A political party formed in 1854 dedicated to preventing the expansion of slavery into new territories.

A Supreme Court decision that declared enslaved persons were not citizens and that Congress could not restrict the spread of slavery.

An unsuccessful attempt by abolitionist John Brown to start an armed rebellion against slavery by seizing the federal armory at Harpers Ferry.

A series of debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas, where they discussed the issue of slavery.

The election of Abraham Lincoln as President, leading to the secession of Southern states.

A nativist political movement that advocated for limiting the rights of immigrants, particularly Irish and German Catholics.

A policy of protecting the interests of native-born people against the interests of immigrants.

The Confederate States of America, formed by Southern states that seceded from the Union in 1860-1861.

A war fought to completely defeat an enemy, using all available resources and tactics, regardless of civilian casualties.

A Union strategy during the Civil War that aimed to cut off the Confederacy's resources by blockading its ports and controlling its rivers.

A presidential proclamation issued in 1863 that freed slaves in Confederate-controlled states.

The first draft of the Union during the Civil War, which led to widespread resentment among the working class.

Protests in July 1863 in New York City against the draft, driven by economic anxieties, racial fears, and resentment towards the wealthy.

A pivotal battle in the Civil War (1863), marking the furthest advance of Confederate forces into northern territory and signifying a turning point in the war.

A speech delivered by President Lincoln at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in 1863, honoring fallen soldiers and redefining ‘freedom’ to include equality, unity, and national purpose.

The formal end of the Civil War in 1865, marking the surrender of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia to the Union forces.

A legal principle that protects individuals from unlawful detention. Lincoln suspended it during the Civil War.

The period following the Civil War (1865-1877) focused on rebuilding the South and integrating newly freed African Americans into society.

The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery.

Lincoln’s plan for bringing the Southern states back into the Union, allowing them to rejoin if 10% of their white male voters swore loyalty to the Union.

The Reconstruction plan proposed by President Andrew Johnson, which gave white Southerners significant control over the transition from slavery to freedom and excluded Black Americans from participation in Southern politics.

The forced relocation of the Cherokee people from their ancestral lands in Georgia to Oklahoma in the 1830s. This event was marked by extreme hardship and suffering, with an estimated 4,000 Cherokee deaths. The route they were forced to travel was known as the "Trail of Tears."

A period of time when religious enthusiasm and revivalism swept through the United States. It led to the formation of new denominations, a focus on social reform, and a greater emphasis on personal piety.

This movement aimed to abolish slavery in the United States. It gained momentum in the 19th century with figures like Harriet Tubman and William Lloyd Garrison. Methods included escapes through the Underground Railroad, sabotage, and violent uprisings.

A set of beliefs that emphasizes individual self-reliance, intuition, and a close connection to nature. Prominent figures include Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.

The belief that the United States had a God-given right and duty to expand westward across the North American continent. It fueled a belief in American exceptionalism and westward expansion.

The 1846-1848 conflict between the United States and Mexico sparked by conflicting claims over Texas and the Southwest. The US victory resulted in the cession of vast territories including California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.

The idea that women should be confined to the domestic sphere, responsible for childcare, housework, and creating a nurturing home environment. It portrayed women as morally superior and responsible for shaping the next generation.

The Industrial Revolution transformed the US from an agrarian society to an industrial powerhouse. This shift occurred from the early 19th century onward and led to significant changes in production, transportation, and urbanization.

This system was a particular model prevalent in early 19th-century New England for textile mills. It involved recruiting young women from rural areas to work in factories, often in company-owned housing.

Organizations formed by workers to collectively bargain with employers for improved working conditions, higher wages, and better treatment. They played a key role in the labor movement demanding fair labor practices.

Andrew Jackson's presidency was marked by his focus on promoting the interests of the "common man", expanding democracy, and challenging the elite. His policies and actions had a significant impact on American politics and society.

A political system where the president appoints supporters to government positions based on loyalty rather than merit. It can lead to corruption and favoritism in appointments.

This policy involved the use of tariffs (taxes on imports) to protect American industries from foreign competition. It was a controversial issue that fueled tensions between the North and South.

This reform movement sought to reduce or eliminate the consumption of alcohol. It was fueled by religious and moral concerns about the negative social impacts of excessive alcohol consumption, like drunk workers.

The Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 was a crucial event in the women's rights movement. It issued a Declaration of Sentiments advocating for women's suffrage, property rights, and education. It marked the beginning of a long struggle for women's equality.

The Freedmen's Bureau was a government agency established after the Civil War to provide assistance to formerly enslaved people and impoverished whites in the South. It provided education, food, clothing, and medical care.

The Civil Rights Act of 1866 granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all people born in the United States. It was passed over President Johnson's veto.

The 14th Amendment to the Constitution guaranteed citizenship and equal protection of the laws for all people born or naturalized in the United States.

The Reconstruction Acts of 1867 divided the South into five military districts, oversaw the readmission of Southern states to the Union, and required universal male suffrage.

The Tenure of Office Act prohibited the president from firing members of his cabinet without the Senate's approval. President Johnson violated this law and was impeached by the House of Representatives.

The 15th Amendment to the Constitution granted the right to vote for all male citizens regardless of race or previous condition of servitude.

Share cropping is an economic system where tenants work a landowner's land in exchange for a portion of the harvest. It often led to debt and the perpetuation of poverty for former slaves.

Tenant farming involves renting land and farming it independently. Unlike sharecropping, tenants are responsible for all costs and profits.

White supremacy is the belief that white people are superior to other races, and it has often been used to justify discrimination and violence against people of color.

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was a white supremacist terrorist group that emerged in the South after the Civil War. They terrorized Black communities through violence and intimidation.

Black Codes were restrictive laws passed in the South after the Civil War, limiting the rights of African Americans. These codes were an effort to reestablish African American segregation and oppression after the abolition of slavery.

Jim Crow Laws were state and local laws passed in the South from the end of Reconstruction to the mid-1950s. They enforced racial segregation and denied African Americans basic rights.

Segregation refers to the separation of people based on their race. De jure segregation is enforced by law, while de facto segregation is enforced by tradition or custom.

Ida B. Wells was a prominent African American journalist and activist who documented the horrors of lynching in the South. Her work helped to expose this violence and inspire reform.

The Election of 1876 between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden was marked by contested election results in the South. It led to the Compromise of 1877, which ended Reconstruction in exchange for the removal of federal troops from the South.

Sarah and Angelina Grimke were sisters from the South who became vocal advocates for ending slavery and promoting women's rights. They challenged both the institution of slavery and societal norms that limited women's roles.

Frederick Douglass was an escaped enslaved person who became a powerful voice against slavery. He wrote his autobiography, spoke out for equal rights for Black Americans and women, and became a leading figure in the abolitionist movement.

Henry David Thoreau was a writer and philosopher who believed in simple living and nonviolent resistance. He is known for his book Walden, a reflection on nature, and his essay Civil Disobedience, which advocated for peaceful opposition to unjust laws.

Stephen Douglas was a U.S. Senator who played a key role in the Kansas-Nebraska Act, allowing territories to decide whether to allow slavery through popular vote. He also debated with Abraham Lincoln during the 1858 Illinois Senate race, leading to Lincoln's rise in national prominence.

James K. Polk was the 11th U.S. president who oversaw the annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the acquisition of California and other western territories. He championed the idea of Manifest Destiny, the belief that the U.S. should expand westward.

John Brown was a radical abolitionist who believed in using violence to end slavery. He led the raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859, attempting to start a slave rebellion, but was captured and executed. His actions, while controversial, inspired many abolitionists.

Jefferson Davis was the president of the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. He led the South in its fight for independence from the Union, primarily centered around slavery and states' rights.

Abraham Lincoln was the 16th U.S. president, known for his leadership during the Civil War, issuing the Emancipation Proclamation to free enslaved people, and delivering the Gettysburg Address about national unity and the end of slavery. He is widely recognized as a great American leader.

Andrew Johnson was the 17th U.S. president who succeeded Lincoln during Reconstruction. His lenient policies toward the South and opposition to civil rights for African Americans caused political turmoil and led to his impeachment.

Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th U.S. president and Union general during the Civil War. His military leadership was critical to victory over the Confederacy, but his presidency was marred by scandals and political challenges.

Jonathan Edwards was a prominent preacher and theologian who played a key role in the First Great Awakening. He's known for his fiery sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," which emphasized personal repentance and salvation.

John Peter Zenger was a German-American printer whose trial for libel in 1735 established a precedent for freedom of the press in America. The court ruled that truthful criticism of the government is not libelous.

George Washington was a significant Founding Father, military leader, and the first President of the United States. He's most known for leading the Continental Army to victory in the American Revolution and setting key precedents for the new federal government.

John Adams was a key figure in the American Revolution and the second president of the United States. He advocated for independence, served as a diplomat in Europe, and helped draft the Declaration of Independence.

Thomas Paine was a prolific writer and pamphleteer whose works, including "Common Sense" and "The American Crisis," greatly inspired colonists to fight for independence from Britain during the American Revolution.

Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States, the primary author of the Declaration of Independence, and a leader of the Democratic-Republican Party. He expanded the country through the Louisiana Purchase.

James Madison, often called the "Father of the Constitution," was the fourth president of the United States. He played a crucial role in shaping the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights, and co-authored "The Federalist Papers."

Alexander Hamilton was a Founding Father, the first secretary of the treasury, and the creator of the nation's financial system. He advocated for a strong central government and the establishment of a national bank.

James Monroe was the fifth president of the United States, known for the Monroe Doctrine. It warned European powers against colonizing in the Americas and established a policy of U.S. intervention in Western Hemisphere affairs.

Henry Clay was a prominent politician known for his role in negotiating several important compromises, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. He served as a U.S. senator and speaker of the House.

William Henry Harrison was the ninth president of the United States. He's known for his victory at the Battle of Tippecanoe and for tragically dying just 31 days into his presidency, making his term the shortest in U.S. history.

John Quincy Adams, the sixth president of the United States and the son of John Adams, was a skilled diplomat and advocate for modernization. He played a key role in shaping the Monroe Doctrine and negotiating the Adams-Onís Treaty.