American Expansionism & Hawaii

Spanish-American War: Context

• After the Civil War, some Americans moved to Cuba to establish sugar plantations
• Cuban natives grew increasingly irritated by the presence of American and Spanish foreigners
• Cuban insurrectionists used guerrilla warfare to damage the island's economy
• General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau gathered Cubans into detention (reconcentrado) centers
• Many Cubans died in these centers from poor conditions
• The American press dubbed the Spanish commander "Butcher" Weyler
• Papers like the New York Journal and New York World sensationalized stories of atrocities, in what was dubbed "yellow journalism"
• Many Americans and Cuban immigrants grew concerned about the events in Cuba, even though Presidents Cleveland and McKinley initially opposed intervention

Sinking of the USS Maine

• The sinking of the USS Maine made war inevitable
• On February 15, 1898, the USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor while stationed there to protect Americans as well as provide an escape vessel for Americans on the island
• 260 sailors died and many more were injured in the explosion
• The ship’s captain, one of only 84 survivors, scribbled a telegram to Washington, giving very few details
• Hearst and Pulitzer's newspapers blamed the Spanish, leading to the rallying cry: "Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain!" to encourage intervention
• The Spanish denied responsibility
• An American investigation blamed a submarine mine, though a 1976 study suggested an internal explosion, based on a fire in a coal bunker
• President McKinley hesitated to declare war
• The Teller Amendment was added to the war declaration to ensure Cuba's independence after the war

War

• The Spanish-American War officially began on April 21, 1898
• The first battle occurred in the Philippines, where U.S. Naval Commodore George Dewey routed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay on May 1
• American and Filipino fighters, assisted by Emilio Aguinaldo, took Manila by August
• The fight in Cuba was difficult due to tropical diseases and American inexperience, resulting in roughly 400 combat deaths, the majority of casualties died due to disease
• After victory in Cuba on July 1, the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico
• The Spanish signed a cease-fire in August 1898, limiting the war to 114 days
• The Treaty of Paris of 1898 ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the U.S. and sold the Philippines to the U.S. for $20 million
• The war marked the emergence of the U.S. as a world power

Insular Cases

• The end of the Spanish-American War intensified the debate over imperialism
• Anti-imperialists like William Jennings Bryan formed groups to oppose U.S. expansion
• Citizens in newly conquered territories brought cases regarding their rights to the U.S. Supreme Court
• The 1901 Insular Cases ruled that the Constitution did not follow the flag
• Congress would, therefore, decide the rights of people in conquered territories

Cuba

• The U.S. ignored the Teller Amendment and issued the Platt Amendment in 1903
• The Platt Amendment, incorporated into the Cuban constitution, required Cuban treaties to be approved by the U.S., gave the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs, and granted the U.S. access to naval bases on the island giving the U.S. sway over the new country
• In essence, the Cubans did not in fact gain their independence from Spain

American Expansionism: Context

• Post-Civil War, America focused on Western exploitation and industrial growth, with little interest in foreign affairs
• President Benjamin Harrison believed that the U.S. should remain an "apart nation"

Expansionism: Hawaii

• America had already established footholds in Alaska (1867) and Samoa (1878) and then turned to Hawaii
• The Kingdom of Hawaii, founded in 1795, was an internationally recognized sovereign state
• The growth of sugar plantations on the Hawaiian Islands led to significant American financial investment
• The United States desired Pearl Harbor as a naval port for its navy and to prevent European nations from using it
• In 1887, the U.S. government began leasing Pearl Harbor
• Taxes and tariffs negatively impacted American and British sugar plantation owners and the owners then sponsored rebellions with the aid of U.S. military personnel
• The Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown in 1893, and Queen Liliuokalani was the last sovereign
• President Grover Cleveland called for an investigation, and a report found that U.S. personnel in Hawaii had abused their power
• Amid rising imperialism, President William McKinley authorized the annexation of Hawaii in 1898

Justification for American Imperialism: Domestic Turmoil

• Expansionist "Jingoes" believed a robust foreign policy could resolve domestic issues
• War would spark nationalistic spirit and resolve domestic tensions

Justification for American Imperialism: Competitive Impulse

• There was a competitive drive among expansionists
• Americans observed European imperialism, including the Berlin Conference of 1884, where major powers partitioned Africa
• European powers began to focus on the Far East and the Chinese Empire
• Some Americans feared being excluded from potential markets

Justification for American Imperialism: American Exceptionalism & Manifest Destiny

• Many felt that Manifest Destiny was unfulfilled after the "closing" of the Western frontier
• Some believed expanding U.S. political influence would fulfill their "destiny"
• Many Americans thought they were destined to spread Christianity worldwide, with 18,000 missionaries abroad by 1900
• Anglo-Saxonism, American exceptionalism, and Social Darwinism promoted the idea that white Protestant races were "fittest" and had a right and responsibility to rule

Justification for American Imperialism: Racial Theories

• Charles Darwin's theories were used to justify expansionism
• Nations or "races" were believed to struggle for existence, with only the fittest surviving
• Strong nations dominating weaker ones aligned with the laws of nature

Justification for American Imperialism: Naval Power

• U.S. Naval Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan advocated overseas expansion
• Mahan's 1890 book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, argued for building a powerful, world-class navy
• Mahan argued the U.S. needed to establish refueling stations and naval bases worldwide, including in Hawaii and Cuba
• Economic development required a powerful navy, a strong merchant marine, foreign commerce, colonies, and naval bases
• Theodore Roosevelt, then Assistant Secretary of the Navy, supported Mahan and expansionism
• By 1896, the U.S. had authorized or built 11 new steel battleships from a starting point of 100 naval vessels.

Justification for American Imperialism: Economic

• American imperialism was, above all else, a quest for markets and raw materials
• The Second Industrial Revolution caused great production increases, making business leaders seek new markets and sources of investment
• Manufacturers desired new sources of raw materials for their expanding needs

Philippine-American War

• The U.S. turned towards Asia
• Business leaders saw commercial opportunities in Asia and Missionary societies aimed to spread Christianity to the "little brown brother"
• The Philippines was seen as a base of operations for expansion
• Filipinos, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, revolted against the American presence initiating guerrilla warfare
• By 1901, Aguinaldo was captured after 63,000 American troops were deployed resulting in 4,300 American deaths
• The suppression of the revolt led to roughly 20,000 Philippine deaths
• The Philippines did not gain independence until July 4th, 1946
• Puerto Rico was acquired to serve as a U.S. outpost, and in 1900 the Foraker Act established a civil government
• Residents were declared citizens of Puerto Rico, but were not made U.S. citizens until the Jones Act of 1917
• In 1952, Puerto Rico became a commonwealth

Open Door Policy

• China became another area of American interest, especially for investors
• Japan and European nations carved China into spheres of influence
• Secretary of State John Hay announced the Open Door Policy to allow any nation to trade with China freely
• Chinese nationalists revolted in 1900 against the Open Door Policy by attempting to remove all foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion
• The Boxers killed some 200 whites
• A multinational force, including U.S. forces, was sent to Peking and ended the rebellion

Roosevelt & Big-Stick Diplomacy

• After McKinley was assassinated in 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became president
• Roosevelt's foreign policy was "speak softly and carry a big stick"
• He aimed to build a reputation of the U.S. as a world power

Panama Canal

• Roosevelt wanted a canal through Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
• The best location was in Colombia and Colombia was not willing to allow the U.S. to create the Canal on their land
• The U.S. helped organize a Panamanian rebellion against Colombia
• The revolution ended quickly through secrecy, the aid of the French and a dozen U.S. warships
• Panama allowed the U.S. to build the canal
• Building the Panama Canal was a challenge lasting a decade, with thousands of workers cutting 50 miles through Panama
• Disease led to over 5,600 deaths
• Construction was completed in 1914

Roosevelt Corollary

• Roosevelt amended the Monroe Doctrine with the Roosevelt Corollary to protect Venezuela from European intervention
• The Roosevelt Corollary stated that the U.S. would aid any Latin American nation experiencing financial trouble
• The U.S. began to police areas within Latin America, gaining a form of control over Latin America through the corollary

Taft & Wilson

• Taft used "dollar diplomacy" by encouraging American businesses to invest in foreign countries
• These investments led to Taft dispatching forces to protect American interests, further alienating relations with Latin America
• Wilson viewed imperialism as immoral but also believed in spreading democracy, known as moral diplomacy
• Wilson sent troops to invade Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic
• Wilson intervened in the Mexican Revolution to capture Pancho Villa
• The U.S. withdrew from the Mexican civil war in 1917

Arguments Against American Imperialism: Anti-Imperialist League (1899)

• American expansionism faced objections from a minority of individuals with diverse interests and philosophies
• Opponents included Andrew Carnegie, Samuel Gompers, and reformers like Jane Addams
• Anti-imperialist groups merged in 1899 to form the American Anti-Imperialist League
• League members were from diverse backgrounds but were mostly of an older generation
• Anti-imperialism voices were prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Arguments Against American Imperialism: Racial Theories

• Some feared American expansion would "pollute" the population by introducing "inferior" Asian races
• Industrial workers feared being undercut by cheap labor from new colonies

Arguments Against American Imperialism: Self-Determination

• Some insisted governing a foreign territory without consent violated the Declaration of Independence
• Senator George Frisbie Hoar argued that taking over "vassal states" was "trampling...on our own great Charter"

Key Takeaways

• Imperialists used economic opportunities, racial theories, competition with European empires, and the perception of a "closed" western frontier to expand American culture globally
• Anti-imperialists used self-determination, racial theories, and U.S. isolationism to oppose overseas territory expansion
• The American victory in the Spanish-American War led to the U.S. acquisition of island territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific
• It also increased U.S. involvement in Asia and led to the suppression of a nationalist movement in the Philippines