American Civil War: Slavery & Cotton Gin

The American Civil War (1861-1865) was fought between the United States of America (the Union) and the Confederate States of America, a collection of eleven southern states that left the Union in 1860 and 1861.
The conflict began primarily as a result of the long-standing disagreement over the institution of slavery.

Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin in 1793 dramatically increased cotton production and profitability in the South.
This led to an increased demand for slave labor, solidifying slavery's economic importance in the Southern states.
The expansion of cotton cultivation and slavery also had significant political implications, particularly regarding representation in Congress.

Missouri's application for statehood as a slave state in 1819 threatened the balance between free and slave states in the Senate.
The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, maintaining the balance.
It also established the 36°30′ parallel as the boundary, north of which slavery would be prohibited in the Louisiana Purchase territories.
This compromise temporarily diffused tensions but established a geographic division over slavery.

South Carolina declared the federal tariffs of 1828 and 1832 unconstitutional and unenforceable within the state.
This was based on the doctrine of nullification, which asserted that states had the right to invalidate federal laws they deemed unconstitutional.
President Andrew Jackson strongly opposed nullification, threatening military intervention to enforce federal law.
The crisis was resolved through a compromise tariff, but it highlighted the growing conflict between states' rights and federal authority.

During the Mexican-American War, Congressman David Wilmot proposed an amendment to a bill that would have banned slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico.
Although the Wilmot Proviso did not pass, it ignited sectional tensions and intensified the debate over the expansion of slavery.
It further polarized the North and South, with each side viewing the issue as a matter of fundamental principle.

A series of laws intended to resolve the dispute over the status of slavery in newly acquired territories from the Mexican-American War.
California was admitted as a free state.
The territories of New Mexico and Utah were organized without explicit mention of slavery, leaving the decision to residents (popular sovereignty).
The slave trade (but not slavery itself) was abolished in Washington, D.C.
A stricter Fugitive Slave Act was enacted, requiring citizens to assist in the capture and return of runaway slaves.
The Compromise of 1850 was meant to settle the escalating conflict, but it ultimately proved divisive.

Part of the Compromise of 1850, this act made it a federal crime to assist runaway slaves and required law enforcement to apprehend them.
It denied fugitive slaves the right to a jury trial and compelled citizens to aid in their capture.
The Fugitive Slave Act intensified Northern opposition to slavery, as it brought the institution directly into their communities.
It led to increased efforts to resist the law, including the formation of vigilance committees and the use of the Underground Railroad.

Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel depicted the harsh realities of slavery and had a profound impact on public opinion.
It humanized enslaved people and exposed the brutality of the system, galvanizing abolitionist sentiment in the North.
The book was widely read and influential, contributing to the growing moral opposition to slavery.
Southerners criticized the novel as inaccurate and propagandistic but it fueled anti-slavery sentiment.

This act repealed the Missouri Compromise and allowed for popular sovereignty in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska.
It led to a rush of pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers into Kansas, resulting in violent clashes known as "Bleeding Kansas".
The act further deepened the sectional divide and contributed to the collapse of the Whig Party.
It intensified the struggle over slavery and set the stage for further conflict.

A series of violent confrontations between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the Kansas Territory.
Both sides sought to gain control of the territorial legislature and determine whether Kansas would be a free or slave state.
Events such as the Sack of Lawrence and the Pottawatomie Massacre exemplified the escalating violence.
"Bleeding Kansas" demonstrated the failure of popular sovereignty and foreshadowed the wider conflict to come.

The Supreme Court ruled that Dred Scott, an enslaved man, was not a citizen and had no right to sue for his freedom.
The Court also declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, stating that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories.
The decision was celebrated in the South but condemned in the North, further deepening the sectional divide.
It effectively opened all territories to slavery and intensified the conflict over its expansion.

John Brown, a radical abolitionist, led a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, with the intention of arming slaves and starting a rebellion.
The raid was quickly suppressed, and Brown was captured, tried, and executed.
While the raid itself was unsuccessful, it had a profound impact on public opinion in both the North and South.
Southerners viewed Brown as a terrorist and feared further abolitionist violence, while many Northerners saw him as a martyr for the cause of freedom.

Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, won the election despite not being on the ballot in many Southern states.
Lincoln's victory was seen as a threat to the Southern way of life, as he opposed the expansion of slavery.
Following Lincoln's election, seven Southern states seceded from the Union: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas.
The election of 1860 was the final catalyst that triggered the secession crisis and led to the outbreak of the Civil War.

In February 1861, the seceding states formed the Confederate States of America, with Jefferson Davis as president.
The Confederacy adopted a constitution that protected slavery and emphasized states' rights.
The secession of these states marked the beginning of the American Civil War, as the Union refused to recognize the Confederacy's legitimacy.
The attack on Fort Sumter in April 1861 is widely considered the start of the war.