Al-Andalus: Historia e Legado

• In 711, Muslims from North Africa began conquering the Iberian Peninsula in a swift process lasting just over a decade, leading to the establishment of al-Andalus.
• Muslim rule persisted in parts of the Iberian Peninsula until 1492, when the final kingdom of Granada fell.

Peak of Muslim Rule

• The Caliphate of Córdoba marked the zenith of Muslim dominance in the 10th century.
• The Caliph held supreme political, military, and religious authority, with Córdoba as the capital.
• Córdoba surpassed all European cities in artistic, scientific, and commercial splendor, exemplified by its grand mosque.

Fragmentation and Decline

• The Caliphate fragmented into taifas (small kingdoms) from the 11th century, diminishing Muslim power and enabling Christian advances in reclaiming territory.
• Al-Andalus had an urban economy centered on crafts and trade.
• The Muslims introduced new crops like rice and oranges and enhanced irrigation methods in agriculture.

Social Structure

• The Arab aristocracy was small, gaining wealth from political roles and land ownership.
• Non-Arab Muslims were typically involved in herding and military service.
• Hispano-Goths who converted to Islam, while legally equal, faced lower social status and were considered second-class Muslims by Arabs.
• Mass conversions to Islam occurred to avoid higher taxes.
• Christians and Jews could practice their religions but paid higher taxes for this privilege.
• Slaves were a significant part of Islamic society, performing harsh labor and domestic duties.

Culture

• Muslims fostered a culture blending their traditions with elements from other civilizations.
• Elementary education was private, Quran-focused, emphasizing writing, diction, recitation, and proper enunciation.
• Universities prioritized religious studies and related disciplines, with libraries gaining importance.
• Arabic was the official language for most literary works.
• Sciences like astronomy, geography, mathematics, and medicine thrived.
• Architecture, both religious (mosques) and civil (palaces), stood out, and the Mosque of Córdoba and Alhambra of Granada are UNESCO World Heritage sites.
• The Muslim kingdom of Granada remained independent until its conquest by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.

Christian Expansion ('Reconquista')

• The Reconquista, the Christian reconquest of Muslim-held territories, spanned from the 8th to the 15th centuries.
• It began in the Asturian mountains and concluded with the capture of Granada in 1492.
• Christian counties and kingdoms emerged as Christians advanced.
• The Kingdom of Galicia was briefly independent before joining the Kingdom of Castile.
• Between the 12th and 15th centuries, there were four Christian kingdoms: Navarre, Castile, Aragon, and Portugal.
• Christians repopulated lands left deserted due to war-related insecurity.
• Kings and lords offered incentives to attract settlers to new towns and cities.
• From the 13th to 15th centuries, the Aragonese and Catalans expanded into the Mediterranean, seizing the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, southern Italy, and parts of Greece.

Feudal Society and Monarchy

• Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula led to unique developments in Christian kingdoms versus the rest of Europe.
• Privileged groups, the nobility (military aid) and clergy (ideological support), gained significant benefits from kings for their assistance against the Muslims.
• The status of non-privileged individuals differed based on whether they were under a lord or directly under the king, with the latter enjoying more freedom.
• Christian monarchs:
  • Exercised absolute power believed to be divinely granted.
  • Viewed the kingdom as personal property, divisible among their children.
  • Granted parts of the kingdom as fiefs to lords in exchange for loyalty and military service.
  • Had representative assemblies (Cortes) of nobles, clergy, and city representatives in Castile and Aragon, primarily to approve new taxes.

Rural and Urban Development

• The peninsular Christian kingdoms experienced economic changes mirroring those in the rest of Europe:
  • Pre-11th century: Primarily agrarian activities with low productivity.
  • Post-12th century:
    • Boosted agricultural yields through better tools and crop specialization.
    • Significant development in livestock farming, especially sheep.
    • Towns and cities flourished:
      • Existing ones revitalized.
      • Many new ones founded.
      • Cities became centers for crafts and trade, with artisans organized into guilds.
    • Trade intensified, locally and over long distances, exemplified by the Burgos fairs.
    • Trade revival was supported by:
      • Enhanced security in Christian-conquered territories.
      • Increased currency circulation for easier transactions.
      • New payment and credit methods like bills of exchange.

Medieval Galicia

• Muslim presence in Galicia was minimal, marked by occasional raids, notably Almanzor's attack on Santiago in 997.
• Galician coasts faced frequent Viking attacks in the 9th and 10th centuries.
• The Kingdom of Asturias reconquered the territory of present-day Galicia.
• Galicia was given as an inheritance to Ordoño, son of King Alfonso III of Asturias and León, becoming an independent kingdom for brief periods.
• In 813, the alleged tomb of the Apostle Santiago was discovered, leading to the rise of Santiago de Compostela as a major pilgrimage site.
• In the 12th century, Bishop Diego Xelmírez enhanced Santiago and secured the privilege of the Holy Year from the Pope: forgiveness of sins for those visiting the Apostle's tomb in years when his feast day (July 25th) falls on a Sunday.