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Striated muscles appear striated or banded under a microscope. Striated muscle fibers include (Choose all correct answer options):

  • Skeletal muscle (correct)
  • Cardiac muscle cells (correct)
  • Smooth muscle cells
  • Muscles of cnidarians

    • What is the function of tropomyosin in muscle cells?

    Tropomyosin covers the myosin binding sites on the actin molecules, preventing contraction from occurring.

    The contractile machinery of muscles is only found in the most recently diverged animal groups.

    False

    When a skeletal muscle contracts, what is happening at the level of the muscle proteins?

    <p>Thin filaments slide relative to thick filaments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do you expect to find high levels of Ca2+ when a motor neuron is not depolarized and the muscle fiber is at rest?

    <p>Within the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle fiber.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following graphs best depicts the relationship between the amount of force produced by a muscle fiber and sarcomere length?

    <p>Graph D</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Muscles can produce forces when shortening and when lengthening.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Muscles do not produce any force unless they are shortening or lengthening.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If a muscle contracts, all of the muscle fibers within that muscle must be contracting.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Do you expect the tail shaker muscles of rattlesnakes to produce more, the same, or less force per unit cross-sectional area than the body muscles?

    <p>Less, because there is a negative relationship between contraction speed and force production.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Do you expect to see an effect of temperature on contraction frequency in rattlesnake tail muscles at 20°C and 35°C?

    <p>Yes, because muscle contraction is an enzymatic process, and thus will be temperature-dependent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differences do you expect to observe between the quadriceps muscle samples of Usain Bolt and an average 25-year-old male?

    <p>More mitochondria in Usain Bolt's muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the characteristics of the vertebral column bones of an adult grey whale?

    <p>They were formed by endochondral ossification; they do not contain chondrocytes when they are fully formed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the lack of cells in the mature bone of the fish affect bone function?

    <p>The bone would probably not be able to repair itself if injury occurred without the osteoblasts to secrete bone material.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Increase the thickness of skeletal element #1.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Increase the cross-sectional area of the flexor.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Move the attachment point of the flexor on skeletal element #1 towards the load.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What two proteins participate in cross-bridge formation?

    <p>Actin and myosin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What event results from the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP by the myosin head?

    <p>Cocking of myosin head to its high-energy position.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the motor endplate?

    <p>The terminal membrane of the motor neuron where neurotransmitter is released.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calmodulin is involved in the regulation of:

    <p>Contraction of smooth muscle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the action of curare make hunting easier for South American Indians?

    <p>The prey were paralyzed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Muscle groups that produce similar motion, or work synergistically, are known as:

    <p>Agonists.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when action potentials stimulate a muscle at a rate that does not allow relaxation between contractions?

    <p>The strength of contraction increases with subsequent stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Muscles that contract slowly and use less ATP to generate their force contain primarily:

    <p>Slow twitch fibers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrostatic elements of vertebrates that have bony endoskeletons include:

    <p>Intervertebral disks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An evolutionary advantage of the endoskeleton is that it (choose all correct answer options):

    <p>Allows growth of fairly large organisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Tendons function:

    <p>To attach muscle to bone.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Limbs like arms, legs, and the fins of whales are part of the:

    <p>Appendicular skeleton.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The shaft of a long bone is also known as:

    <p>The diaphysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone does a pen likely contain for low blood sugar in a Type I diabetic?

    <p>Glucagon.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the likely effect of a mutation in Rhodnius that affects the juvenile hormone?

    <p>The juvenile hormone is overexpressed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of high levels of estrogen on kisspeptin synthesis?

    <p>Decrease kisspeptin synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What accounts for the different effects of a peptide hormone in rabbits and humans despite similar receptor sequences?

    <p>Sequence differences in components of the associated second messenger pathway.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Consider the positive feedback regulating mammalian childbirth. What roles do the pituitary gland, oxytocin, and uterine contractions play?

    <p>The sensor; the effector; both the stimulus and response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It takes very few molecules of a hormone to cause changes in a target cell. This may be explained by:

    <p>The mechanism of hormonal action may involve an enzyme cascade that amplifies the response to a hormone.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the feeding method of certain predators is correct?

    <p>Is used by aquatic salamanders and fish.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which parts does the midgut include? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Small intestine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Most nutrient absorption takes place in which parts of the intestine? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>Jejunum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bile, which aids in the digestion of fat, is stored in the _____.

    <p>gall bladder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the digestive tract houses the blood and lymph vessels into which nutrients are transported?

    <p>Submucosa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    E. coli provides us with which of the following? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>Vitamin K</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Herbivores have specialized compartments in their digestive tracts that serve which purposes? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>Provide appropriate temperature and pH for plant breakdown</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are limitations on a cheetah's ability to be an effective predator? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>They cannot run when the temperature is around 105°F</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'empty calorie' refer to?

    <p>Misleading energy measure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the rate of oxygen consumption an appropriate measure of metabolic rate?

    <p>Both A and B</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can you infer about metabolic rates in endotherms and ectotherms?

    <p>Endotherms have a higher density of mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many molecules of ATP does a molecule of palmitic acid yield?

    <p>Approximately 106</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What allows adults in certain populations to continue digesting lactose?

    <p>Mutation conferred a selective advantage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would be expected in a study of copepods' feeding habits?

    <p>Mandibles have grinding teeth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of secretin stimulating bicarbonate release into the duodenum?

    <p>Enzymes for hydrolysis are active</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between rabbit droppings and ruminant digestion?

    <p>Rabbits are hindgut fermenters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to freshwater fish in a hypotonic environment?

    <p>Chloride channels move chloride actively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would happen if a trout is placed in saltwater?

    <p>The fish would lose water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Despite being an osmoconformer, a shark still spends energy to regulate individual ion concentrations.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following lists the three forms of nitrogenous waste from most water-intensive to least?

    <p>Ammonia, urea, uric acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following lists the three forms of nitrogenous waste in order from least to most energetically expensive to produce?

    <p>Urea, uric acid, ammonia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does it require to demonstrate that ethyl oleate normally acts as a pheromone?

    <p>It would require demonstration that ethyl oleate binds to a receptor and initiates a series of responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A new hormone is discovered that plays a role in bone development. How should this hormone be classified? (Select all that apply)

    <p>as a peptide hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why did most of the hive attack the beekeeper? (Select all that apply)

    <p>because the first bee produced alarm pheromones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statements are true regarding neurotransmitters and synaptic signaling? (Select all that apply)

    <p>All synaptic signaling is rapid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most likely explanation for the fir tree synthesizing a compound that disrupts firebug development?

    <p>There is likely strong similarity in the hormone receptors of different insects so that a compound made by a tree native to North America has an effect on an insect native to Europe.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statements are true regarding the pituitary gland? (Select all that apply)

    <p>It serves as a control center for the endocrine system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the likely symptoms of an underactive pineal gland?

    <p>insomnia (due to low melatonin levels)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _____________ hormones signal organs of the endocrine system to secrete new, additional hormones.

    <p>Tropic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of blood vessels would have the greatest resistance to flow?

    <p>capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most likely reason for the difference in how aldosterone and insulin interact with target cells?

    <p>Aldosterone is lipid-soluble and therefore easily crosses the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do we breathe more quickly and deeply when we exercise? (Select all correct answer options)

    <p>Because when we exercise, we use more ATP and additional O2 is necessary to generate sufficient ATP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens in the medullary respiratory center if blood pH drops?

    <p>The respiratory center increases the rate of ventilation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be deduced about carbon monoxide's effect on hemoglobin?

    <p>Carbon monoxide decreases the binding of O2 to hemoglobin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If water passed over fish gills in the same direction as blood flow, how would gas exchange be affected? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>Less carbon dioxide would diffuse out of the fish's bloodstream into the water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does the chest rise and fall more dramatically when breathing deeply compared to normal?

    <p>Your intercostal muscles are being used to expand your chest cavity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How will a mutation causing a mammalian fetus to synthesize only adult hemoglobin affect it? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>The fetus will derive less oxygen from its mother's bloodstream.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During heavy exercise, what is the approximate percent O2 saturation of hemoglobin in venous blood? (Select one)

    <p>approximately 20%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What advantage does myoglobin confer to contracting muscles?

    <p>It binds oxygen at pO2 values at which hemoglobin is releasing its bound O2.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statements are true regarding anaerobic metabolism? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>occurs in the cytosol in the absence of oxygen.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statements are true regarding respiration in birds? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Respiration depends on the movement of air through air sacs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factors cause oxygen to be released from hemoglobin? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>the formation of lactic acid by muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the heart of a reptile or amphibian, where would you expect to find oxygenated blood? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>mixed with de-oxygenated blood in a common ventricle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to blood vessels in a lioness going from resting to hunting? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>Arterioles supplying her stomach and intestines contract.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can happen in a gazelle's body to increase blood pressure as it loses blood? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>The pituitary gland can secrete vasopressin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the heart of a fish, where would you expect to find oxygenated blood? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Nowhere; oxygenated blood does not pass through a fish's heart.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the reason O2 travels from the capillaries into the tissues?

    <p>because of a concentration gradient between O2 in the tissues and O2 in the blood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why would a molecule that inhibits the activation of a natural vasoconstrictor be poisonous?

    <p>An inhibitor of angiotensin may cause a fatal drop in blood pressure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In muscle tissue, protein consumed in the diet but not immediately used is stored as adipose tissue.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A gram of elephant tissue has a higher resting metabolic rate than a gram of mouse tissue.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are muscles providing energy when jogging at a regular pace?

    <p>aerobic respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statements accurately describe ectotherms compared to endotherms? (Select all correct choices)

    <p>Ectotherm metabolic rates are about 25% those of endotherms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a specialized function of one or more regions of the digestive tract?

    <p>aerobic metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why must essential amino acids be supplied in the diet?

    <p>Essential amino acids are necessary for protein biosynthesis, but we do not have the biochemical pathways to synthesize those amino acids.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Muscle Types and Functions

    • Striated muscles are banded under a microscope; include skeletal and cardiac muscle cells.
    • Tropomyosin prevents contraction by covering myosin binding sites on actin.
    • Muscle contraction involves sliding of thin filaments past thick filaments, not shortening.
    • Calcium is primarily found within the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle fibers at rest.

    Muscle Contraction Mechanics

    • Cross-bridges form between actin and myosin, essential for shortening muscle fibers.
    • ATP hydrolysis by myosin leads to the myosin head moving to a high-energy position.
    • Action potentials stimulate sustained muscle contraction, increasing strength without allowing relaxation.

    Muscle Fiber Types and Physiology

    • Fast-twitch fibers are more prevalent in elite sprinters like Usain Bolt, enhancing rapid contraction.
    • Slow-twitch fibers predominately use aerobic processes and contract slowly, using less ATP.
    • Muscles generate force through contraction as well as extending beyond resting length.

    Bone Structure and Development

    • Fish vertebrae may lack osteocytes, affecting their ability to repair.
    • Whales' vertebrae are formed through endochondral ossification, lacking chondrocytes in maturity.
    • Intervertebral disks serve as hydrostatic elements in vertebrates with bony endoskeletons.

    Endocrine Regulation

    • Kisspeptin plays a vital role in sexual maturation, particularly influencing GnRH secretion.
    • High levels of estrogen in a negative feedback system reduce kisspeptin synthesis.
    • Glucagon is the hormone for counteracting low blood sugar in Type I diabetes.

    Pheromones and Hormonal Signals

    • Ethyl oleate acts as a pheromone if proven to be released by another species member.
    • Alarm pheromones trigger mass responses, like aggression in honeybees during threats.
    • Peptide hormones, such as hydrophilic hormones composed of amino acids, influence various physiological processes.

    Synaptic Communication

    • Neurotransmitters enable rapid synaptic signaling, which occurs exclusively between nerve cells.
    • Not all neurotransmitters function as hormones; their release is localized and specific.
    • Synaptic signals differ from hormonal signals that circulate more broadly in the bloodstream.

    Evolutionary Biology

    • The endoskeleton offers evolutionary advantages by allowing growth and protection of vital organs.
    • Muscle groups working together to produce similar motions are termed agonists.
    • Understanding muscle biomechanics and hormonal influences is critical for grasping animal physiology.### Fir Tree and European Insect Interaction
    • Fir trees produce a compound that disrupts the development of firebugs, a European insect species.
    • This adaptation decreases competition for resources in the fir tree's native environment.
    • The compound enhances the survival rates of fir tree offspring by affecting the firebug's population.
    • Strong similarity in hormone receptors among insects allows the fir tree's compound to influence a foreign insect species.

    Pituitary Gland Characteristics

    • Composed of two distinct glands with specific functions.
    • Acts as a major control center for the endocrine system, producing various hormones.
    • Secretes hormones that can target the kidneys and respond to hypothalamic signals.
    • Could be classified as part of the nervous system due to its regulatory functions.

    Symptoms of Underactive Pineal Gland

    • Likely symptoms include insomnia, which results from reduced melatonin production.

    Tropic Hormones

    • Tropic hormones, such as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), signal other endocrine organs to produce and release additional hormones.

    Blood Vessel Resistance

    • Capillaries exhibit the greatest resistance to blood flow when compared to arteries, veins, and other vessel types.

    Aldosterone and Insulin Function

    • Aldosterone is lipid-soluble and binds to intracellular receptors, while insulin binds to extracellular receptors on the cell membrane due to size and solubility differences.

    Breathing During Exercise

    • Increased ventilation during exercise is essential to meet the higher oxygen demands for ATP generation.
    • Enhanced CO2 production during exercise necessitates increased breathing rates to expel CO2.

    Respiratory Center Function

    • Medullary respiratory center increases ventilation rate when blood pH drops due to increased CO2 from active tissues.

    Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

    • Carbon monoxide reduces the binding of oxygen to hemoglobin, which is critical for oxygen transport in the bloodstream.

    Fish Gas Exchange Mechanism

    • In countercurrent exchange, less oxygen diffuses into the fish's bloodstream when water flows in the same direction as blood flow in gill lamellae.

    Chest Expansion During Deep Breathing

    • Deep breaths cause dramatic chest movement due to the use of intercostal muscles to expand the thoracic cavity.

    Fetal Hemoglobin Mutation Effects

    • A mutation causing a fetus to synthesize only adult hemoglobin limits its oxygen uptake from the mother, resulting in reduced oxygen availability.

    Oxygen Saturation During Exercise

    • During heavy exercise, muscle PO2 can drop to around 20 mm Hg, indicating around 20% O2 saturation in venous blood returning from skeletal muscles.

    Myoglobin Advantage

    • Myoglobin binds oxygen at lower pO2 levels than hemoglobin, providing an oxygen reservoir in contracting muscles.

    Anaerobic Metabolism Characteristics

    • Occurs in the cytosol without oxygen and provides quick bursts of energy.

    Bird Respiration Mechanics

    • Bird respiration involves crosscurrent exchange for oxygen absorption and depends on the movement of air through specialized air sacs.

    Oxygen Release from Hemoglobin Factors

    • Factors include changes in blood acidity, increased carbon dioxide levels, lactic acid formation, and enhanced aerobic respiration.

    Heart Structure in Reptiles and Amphibians

    • Oxygenated blood can be found in the left atrium and mixed in a common ventricle.

    Blood Vessel Reactions During Hunting

    • While hunting, arterioles supplying limb muscles expand, and those supplying the stomach and intestines contract to redirect blood flow.

    Increasing Blood Pressure in Gazelles

    • Vasopressin secretion from the pituitary and sympathetic nerve signals to constrict arterioles can help increase blood pressure during blood loss.

    Oxygen Passing Through Fish Hearts

    • Fish do not have oxygenated blood passing through their hearts; oxygenation occurs in the gills.

    Nutrient Movement in Capillaries

    • Oxygen moves from capillaries to tissues due to a concentration gradient.

    Inhibitory Effects of Pit Viper Venom

    • Venom that inhibits angiotensin activation can cause a potentially fatal drop in blood pressure.

    Muscle Tissue Protein Storage

    • Protein not immediately used by muscle tissue is not stored as adipose tissue.

    Metabolic Rate Comparisons

    • A gram of mouse tissue exhibits a higher resting metabolic rate than a gram of elephant tissue.

    Energy Provision in Muscles

    • Muscles primarily provide energy through aerobic respiration during consistent moderate exercise.

    Ectotherm vs. Endotherm Characteristics

    • Ectotherm metabolic rates are approximately 25% of those of endotherms, resulting in less sustained activity and longer food deprivation periods.

    Digestion Limitations

    • Aerobic metabolism is not a specialized function of the digestive tract but rather a metabolic process at the cellular level.

    Essential Amino Acids Requirement

    • Essential amino acids must be ingested since humans lack the pathways to synthesize them.

    Suction Feeding

    • This method involves oral cavity expansion, allowing fish to capture prey efficiently, and is performed by various aquatic species.

    Midgut Functionality

    • The midgut includes the small intestine, where most nutrient absorption occurs.

    Nutrient Absorption Locations

    • Most nutrient absorption occurs in the jejunum and ileum of the small intestine.

    Bile Storage

    • Bile, vital for fat digestion, is stored in the gallbladder.

    Submucosa Role in Digestion

    • The submucosa layer contains blood and lymph vessels essential for nutrient transport from the digestive tract.

    E. coli Contributions

    • E. coli in the intestines helps synthesize vitamin K and other nutrients while degrading undigested food.

    Herbivores and Cellulase

    • Herbivores rely on specialized digestive compartments that house bacteria capable of producing cellulase to digest plant material.

    Cheetah Predator Limitations

    • Cheetahs must rest between sprints and have temperature limitations that affect their hunting efficacy.

    "Empty Calorie" Terminology

    • Refers to food high in calories but low in nutritional value, misleading as calories are a unit of energy regardless of nutrient content.

    Measuring Metabolic Rate

    • The O2 consumption rate is a widely used and effective indicator of metabolic rate due to its relationship with energy expenditure.### Metabolic Rate and Energy Production
    • Usable energy in the form of ATP is primarily produced through aerobic respiration.
    • Metabolic rate indicates the energy utilized over time; it's associated with both anabolic and aerobic processes.
    • Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and Pi occurs aerobically, highlighting the dependence on oxygen.

    Differences Between Endotherms and Ectotherms

    • Endotherms have a higher density of mitochondria compared to ectotherms, influencing their metabolic capacities.
    • Ectotherms do not necessarily have a higher overall metabolic rate despite different activity levels.

    Fatty Acid Oxidation

    • Palmitic acid can yield approximately 106 ATP molecules through fatty acid oxidation, producing electron carriers FADH2 and NADH.
    • Fatty acids bypass glycolysis and directly enter the electron transport chain, avoiding intermediate steps.

    Lactose Tolerance in Adults

    • Continued lactase production in adults is due to a genetic mutation that provided selective advantages in cultures reliant on dairy.
    • Mutation enables lactose digestion, highlighting the evolutionary benefits of milk consumption.

    Copepods and Feeding Habits

    • Copepods possess specialized mouthparts adapted for their diet; herbivorous species feature grinding teeth on mandibles.

    Role of Secretin in Digestion

    • Secretin stimulates bicarbonate ion release in the duodenum, neutralizing stomach acid.
    • This pH change activates enzymes for carbohydrate hydrolysis, aiding in digestion.

    Digestive Differences in Rabbits and Ruminants

    • Rabbits are hindgut fermenters, re-ingesting cecotropes to recover nutrients lost during fermentation, unlike ruminants which absorb digestate in the small intestine.

    Lactase Production and Genetic Mutations

    • Lactose tolerance mutations are typically found in regulatory DNA of the lactase gene, allowing continued lactase production.

    Freshwater Fish Adaptations

    • Freshwater fish maintain cellular integrity in a hypotonic environment by actively using chloride channels to manage ion and water balance.

    Water Loss Mechanisms in Animals

    • Animals can lose water through urine and feces, respiration, perspiration, and gill activity, demonstrating various physiological adaptations.

    Effects of Saltwater on Freshwater Fish

    • Transferring a freshwater fish (like a trout) to saltwater results in rapid water loss and potential bloating.

    Osmoregulation in Sharks

    • Sharks, although osmoconformers, expend energy to regulate ion concentrations to maintain homeostasis.

    Nitrogenous Waste in Animals

    • The hierarchy of nitrogenous waste from most to least water-intensive for elimination is ammonia, urea, and uric acid.
    • Conversely, the order of nitrogenous waste production from least to most energetically expensive is also ammonia, urea, and uric acid.

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