Aircraft Construction: Wood Materials & Properties
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary responsibility of a mechanic regarding older wood aircraft structures?

  • To modify the structures to modern standards.
  • To replace all wood components with metal.
  • To inspect for deterioration and airworthiness. (correct)
  • To repaint and refurbish the outer surfaces.

    • When selecting wood for aircraft repairs, what should be prioritized?

  • Wood from previous repairs can be reused without approval.
  • Wood must be of aircraft quality. (correct)
  • Use any available type of wood.
  • Only new wood should be used without inspection.

    • What is the greatest dimension change in wood due to shrinkage when moisture content is lowered?

  • There is no dimension change.
  • Longitudinal direction.
  • Radial direction.
  • Tangential direction. (correct)

    • What should be done if a mechanic wants to use a substitute wood species for an aircraft part?

    <p>Approval must be obtained from the manufacturer or FAA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common misconception about the effects of moisture on wood parts?

    <p>All directions experience the same amount of shrinkage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of wood should be used for repairing aircraft structures?

    <p>Wood of aircraft quality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first action a mechanic should take when inspecting older wood aircraft structures?

    <p>Conduct a detailed inspection for deterioration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which direction experiences the greatest shrinkage in wood when moisture content is lowered?

    <p>Tangential direction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who should approve the replacement of original wood with a substitute material?

    <p>The FAA or airframe manufacturer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic should the species of wood used for repairs ideally match?

    <p>The original species of wood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a likely consequence of improper wood selection in aircraft repairs?

    <p>Loosening of joints and structural failures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding the properties of wood in aircraft use?

    <p>Shrinkage varies by direction of the grain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of standards must personnel have when selecting wood for aircraft structures?

    <p>Thorough knowledge of inspection criteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of applying clamping pressure during adhesive bonding?

    <p>To force air from the joint and ensure intimate contact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which adhesive type requires a minimum temperature to be maintained throughout the curing process?

    <p>Resorcinol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What could result from insufficient clamping pressure during adhesive bonding?

    <p>Weak joints with thick bond lines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended distance for staggering nails in adjacent rows?

    <p>1 inch apart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be examined before deciding to remove nails after assembly?

    <p>Adjacent structure's fastening methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is NOT recommended for applying pressure during bonding operations?

    <p>Using rubber bands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be done if parts cannot be discarded after improper adhesive application?

    <p>Remove the partially cured adhesive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When should pressure be applied to a joint during adhesive curing?

    <p>As soon as the adhesive is applied and before it thickens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of fasteners can produce adverse effects during bonding operations?

    <p>Nails and screws</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of applying pressure to thin plywood joints?

    <p>Nailing or stapling is common</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which wood species is considered as the standard for comparison in strength properties?

    <p>Spruce</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which species has satisfactory characteristics with respect to workability and may be used as a substitute for spruce?

    <p>Noble Fir</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the maximum permissible grain deviation for all species compared to spruce?

    <p>1:15</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which wood species is noted for being difficult to work with handtools due to tendencies to split and splinter?

    <p>Douglas Fir</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which wood species has lower hardness and shock-resisting capacity compared to spruce?

    <p>Pine, Northern White</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defect is specifically noted as not being permissible due to its detrimental effects on strength?

    <p>Compression wood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which wood species is said to be easy to work with handtools?

    <p>White Cedar, Port Orford</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can the presence of mineral streaks indicate when found in wood?

    <p>Decay</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be avoided when manufacturing large solid pieces of Douglas Fir?

    <p>Inspection difficulties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What action should be taken regarding hard knots in wood?

    <p>They can be accepted if specific conditions are met.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the grain primarily observed in rejection cases?

    <p>Excessive cracks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which wood species has properties between 85% and 96% those of spruce?

    <p>Northern White Pine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be done if defects such as compression wood are suspected in a wood piece?

    <p>Test sample before use.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a permissible defect for wood when it comes to pitch pockets?

    <p>Must be fewer than 14 inches apart within growth rings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component must be mixed with the resin to create epoxy adhesives?

    <p>Curing agent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should NOT be done to alter the cure time of epoxy adhesives?

    <p>Vary the resin-to-hardener ratio</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is pot life in the context of epoxy adhesives?

    <p>Time the adhesive can be spread after mixing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is a critical factor for producing satisfactory adhesive joints in aircraft bonding?

    <p>Continuous thin and uniform film of adhesive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is advised for maintaining cleanliness of surfaces prior to bonding?

    <p>Cover with clean plastic material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended surface preparation for wood before bonding?

    <p>Machining surfaces to be smooth and true</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be done if wood surfaces are aged or polished before bonding?

    <p>Very slight sanding with fine grit paper</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a wetting test help identify?

    <p>Presence of unwanted materials on the surface</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is spreading adhesive on only one surface generally not recommended?

    <p>It may not provide enough coverage for bonding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is open assembly time in the bonding process?

    <p>Time from spreading adhesive to clamping parts together</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be done if the recommended assembly periods for bonding are exceeded?

    <p>Discard the parts if feasible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of adhesive is mentioned as an example in the content?

    <p>Resorcinol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the signs of compression failures in wood?

    <p>Buckling fibers appearing as streaks at right angles to the grain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic must wood surfaces have for strong bonding?

    <p>Be free from dust and contaminants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is crucial to ensure adequate joint strength before handling a bonded structure?

    <p>Pressing time must be sufficient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be done if there is uncertainty about a wood piece's condition?

    <p>Conduct a microscopic examination or toughness test</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common method to minimize shrinkage effects on wood members?

    <p>Seal end grain and bolt holes with an appropriate sealer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be avoided when preparing wood surfaces for bonding?

    <p>Using sandpaper on softwood surfaces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which adhesive is recommended for use in wooden aircraft structures?

    <p>Resorcinol adhesive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can lead to the failure of a new adhesive applied over old casein adhesive?

    <p>Residual alkalinity from the casein adhesive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is NOT common to synthetic-resin adhesives?

    <p>Plastic resin glue has high durability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the appropriate procedure when using resorcinol adhesive?

    <p>Quality of fit and proper clamping pressure are critical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which adhesive is considered obsolete for repairs on aircraft structures?

    <p>Casein adhesive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What special requirement must adhesives meet for use in certificated civil aircraft?

    <p>They must comply with certain performance requirements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which commonly used modern adhesive in aircraft is known for its effectiveness at high pressures?

    <p>Epoxy adhesives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why must care be taken when using urea-formaldehyde resin glue?

    <p>It can deteriorate more rapidly than wood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which requirement is essential for integrating modified wood products into aircraft structures?

    <p>They should provide specialized strength or durability characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary reason for rejecting wood in aircraft manufacturing?

    <p>Obvious failures such as decay or rot</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the use of Phenolic parts in aircraft structures?

    <p>They are commonly used along with plywood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Wood Aircraft Construction

    • Wood aircraft construction dates back to the early days of aviation.
    • While limited in production today, many older wood aircraft structures remain in service.
    • Mechanics must inspect these structures carefully for deterioration and to ensure airworthiness.

    Wood Quality & Properties

    • All wood and plywood should be of aircraft quality and approved by an expert.
    • Table 1-1 lists permissible variations in characteristics and properties of wood suitable for aircraft construction, including strength, grain deviation, and workability.
    • When substituting wood, use the original species if possible. Obtain approval from the manufacturer or FAA for using other materials.

    Wood Shrinkage

    • Changes in moisture content cause wood to shrink and warp. The mechanic needs to consider the effect on the structure and how it affects repairs.
    • Shrinkage is greatest across the fibers and parallel to the growth rings (tangential direction).
    • Mitigation strategies include using short bushings to prevent bulging, feathering plywood faceplates, and sealing wood surfaces with varnish or epoxy.

    Modified Wood Products

    • Plywood is the most common modified wood product found in aircraft construction.
    • Phenolic parts are also incorporated into structures, offering specialized strength.

    Adhesives

    • Mechanics must only use adhesives that meet performance requirements for certificated civil aircraft. Follow manufacturer instructions for each product.
    • Adhesives acceptable to the FAA can be identified by:
      • Consulting the aircraft maintenance or repair manual
      • Using adhesives meeting Military Specification (Mil Spec), Aerospace Material Specification (AMS), or Technical Standard Order (TSO) requirements
    • Common adhesive types include casein and synthetic resins. Newer adhesives may become available.
    • Casein adhesives are generally inferior to synthetic adhesives and can deteriorate over time. Scrape off all casein before re-bonding with other adhesives.
    • Synthetic-resin adhesives include plastic resin glue, resorcinol, hot-pressed Phenol, and epoxy.
    • Plastic resin glue should be considered obsolete for repairs due to rapid deterioration in humid environments. Consult FAA before using.
    • Resorcinol adhesive is recommended and approved for use in wooden aircraft structures, meeting the necessary strength and durability requirements. It is a two-part resin, requiring proper mixing and clamping.
    • Phenol-formaldehyde adhesive is used in plywood manufacturing but is not practical for repair.
    • Epoxy adhesives are acceptable if they meet the requirements for aircraft repair. They have good working properties but may be less durable in high temperatures or humidity. Follow manufacturer instructions for mixing and curing times.

    Bonding Precautions

    • Bonding operations must be controlled to achieve a continuous, thin, and uniform adhesive film for maximum joint strength.
    • Factors for achieving successful bonding:
      • Properly prepared wood surfaces
      • Adhesive of good quality, properly prepared, and suitable for the task
      • Proper bonding technique, following adhesive manufacturer instructions

    Wood Surface Preparation for Bonding

    • Surface preparation is critical for successful bonding.
    • Surfaces should be machined smooth and true.
    • Sandpaper should not be used to smooth softwood surfaces, except for very light sanding of aged or polished surfaces.
    • Remove all contaminants like oil, wax, varnish, paint, dust, and adhesive residues.
    • Wetting tests can be used to detect the presence of wax, old adhesive, and finish.

    Applying Adhesive

    • Spread a thin, even layer of adhesive on both surfaces to be joined.
    • Consult manufacturer application instructions for specific guidelines.

    Assembly Time in Bonding

    • Time is critical for the bonding process due to the chemical reactions of adhesives.
    • Key time constraints include:
      • Pot life: Usable time of the adhesive after mixing.
      • Open assembly time: Period between adhesive spreading and clamping.
      • Closed assembly time: Period between parts being laid together and clamping pressure applied.
      • Pressing time: Duration for which parts are clamped for proper cure.

    Bonding Process

    • Do not continue the bonding process if recommended open or closed assembly periods are exceeded.
    • Discard parts if feasible.
    • If parts cannot be discarded, remove the partially cured adhesive and clean the bond line per adhesive manufacturer's instructions.

    Bonding Temperature

    • Temperature of the bond line affects the cure rate of the adhesive.
    • Some adhesives, like resorcinol, require a minimum temperature that must be maintained during the curing process.
    • Each adhesive type has a specific temperature requirement during the cure cycle.
    • Follow the manufacturer's recommendations.

    Clamping Pressure

    • Use recommended pressure to squeeze adhesive into a thin, continuous film between wood layers.
    • Pressure should be applied before the adhesive becomes too thick to flow.
    • Clamping pressure is achieved through clamps, presses, or other mechanical devices.
    • Nonuniform clamping pressure results in weak and strong areas within the same joint.
    • Clamping pressure varies depending on adhesive type and wood type.
    • Typical pressures for resorcinol:
      • Softwoods: 125 to 150 pounds per square inch
      • Hardwoods: 150 to 200 pounds per square inch
    • Thick bond lines are an indication of a weak joint.
    • Insufficient pressure or poorly machined surfaces often result in thick bond lines.
    • Some epoxy adhesives require less clamping pressure.
    • Follow the manufacturer's instructions.

    Methods of Applying Pressure

    • Methods range from using brads, nails, screws, and clamps to hydraulic and electrical power presses.
    • Selecting the right clamping method is crucial for sound bond joints.
    • Hand nailing is common for bonding ribs and applying plywood skins to wings, control surfaces, and fuselage frames.
    • Small brass screws can be used for bonding smaller parts where clamps can't be used.
    • Nails and screws can cause adverse effects:
      • Risk of splitting small parts when installing.
      • Metal fasteners create vulnerable points for moisture entry.
    • For small joints using thin plywood, pressure is typically applied by nailing or stapling.
    • Thin plywood nailing strips are often used to distribute pressure over a larger area and ease nail removal after curing.
    • Nail size should vary based on member size.
    • If multiple rows of nails are required:
      • Nails should be 1 inch apart in rows spaced 1/2 inch apart.
      • Nails in adjacent rows should be staggered.
      • Nails in adjacent rows should not be more than 3/4 inch from the nearest nail.
      • Nail length should penetrate the wood below the joint at least 3/8 inch.
      • Nail ends in small members should not protrude through the member below the joint.
      • Use light hammer strokes to seat the nail head without crushing the wood.
    • Nails may be removed after adhesive cure, or left in place.
    • Nails are for clamping pressure during adhesive cure, not for holding members together in service.
    • Check adjacent structure to see if nails from original manufacture remain before removing nails.
    • For larger members, use screw clamps like cabinet-maker's bars or "C-clamps".
    • Use strips or blocks to distribute clamping pressure and prevent local crushing of thin members.
    • Strips or blocks should be at least twice as thick as the thinner member.
    • After clamping or nailing, inspect the entire joint for uniform part contact and adhesive squeeze-out.
    • Wipe away excess adhesive.

    Wood Aircraft Construction

    • Wood aircraft construction dates back to the early days of certificated aircraft
    • Very few wood aircraft structures are produced today, but many older airframes remain in service
    • Mechanics are responsible for inspecting wood aircraft structures for deterioration and airworthiness

    Quality of Wood

    • Wood and plywood for repairing aircraft structures should be of aircraft quality
    • Selection and approval of wood stock for aircraft structural use are specialized skills
    • Consult ANC-19 for criteria and methods
    • Wood species used for repair should be the same as the original whenever possible
    • Table 1-1 lists permissible substitutes
    • Obtain approval for replacement of modified woods or other non-wood products with a substitute material

    Shrinkage Effects of Wood

    • When wood moisture content is lowered, the part will shrink
    • Shrinkage is greatest in a tangential direction (across the fibers and parallel to the growth rings)
    • Shrinkage is less in a radial direction (across the fibers and perpendicular to the growth rings)
    • Shrinkage is negligible in a longitudinal direction (parallel to the fibers)
    • Dimensional changes can loosen fittings, wire bracing, and cause checking or splitting of wood members
    • Use bushings that are slightly short to allow for shrinkage
    • Feather plywood faceplates to accommodate for shrinkage
    • Seal wood surfaces with varnish, epoxy, or other acceptable sealer to slow or prevent moisture changes

    Modified Wood Products

    • Plywood is the most common modified wood in aircraft construction
    • Phenolic parts are sometimes incorporated into structures
    • These modified products are used for specialized strength or durability characteristics

    Adhesives

    • Adhesives used in aircraft structures must meet performance requirements for certificated civil aircraft
    • Use each adhesive in accordance with the aircraft and adhesive manufacturer's instructions
    • Adhesives meeting Military Specification (Mil Spec), Aerospace Material Specification (AMS), or Technical Standard Order (TSO) are satisfactory
    • Adhesives should be compatible with existing structural materials and fabrication methods

    Casein Adhesives

    • Casein adhesives have inferior performance compared to modern adhesives
    • Casein deteriorates over time with moisture exposure and temperature variations
    • Modern adhesives may be incompatible with casein
    • All traces of casein must be scraped off before applying a new adhesive
    • Residual casein alkalinity may cause new adhesive to fail to cure properly

    Synthetic-Resin Adhesives

    • Synthetic-resin adhesives include plastic resin glue, resorcinol, hot-pressed Phenol, and epoxy
    • Plastic resin glue (urea-formaldehyde resin glue) has been used in wood aircraft for many years
    • Exercise caution with plastic resin glue as it deteriorates rapidly in hot, moist environments and under cyclic swell-shrink stress
    • Urea-formaldehyde should be considered obsolete for repairs
    • Discuss the use of urea-formaldehyde with the appropriate FAA office before using it on certificated aircraft

    Resorcinol Adhesives

    • Resorcinol is the only adhesive recommended and approved for use in wooden aircraft structures
    • Resorcinol (resorcinol-formaldehyde resin) is a two-part synthetic resin adhesive
    • The appropriate amount of hardener is added to the resin and mixed together
    • Quality of fit and clamping pressure are critical to achieve full joint strength
    • Adhesive bond lines must be thin and uniform
    • Observe material safety data and follow manufacturer's instructions regarding mixing, open assembly and close assembly times, and usable temperature ranges

    Phenol-Formaldehyde Adhesives

    • Phenol-formaldehyde adhesives are commonly used in the manufacturing of aircraft-grade plywood
    • This product is cured at elevated temperature and pressure and is not practical for use in structural repair

    Epoxy Adhesives

    • Epoxy adhesives are two-part synthetic resin products
    • Many new epoxy resin systems have excellent working properties
    • Less critical of joint quality and clamping pressure
    • Penetrate well into wood and plywood
    • Joint durability in the presence of elevated temperature or moisture is inadequate in many epoxies
    • The epoxy adhesives generally consist of a resin and a hardener that are mixed together
    • Pot life may vary from a few minutes to an hour
    • Cure times vary between products
    • Observe material safety data and follow manufacturer's instructions regarding mixing, open and closed curing times, and usable temperature ranges
    • Do not vary the resin-to-hardener ratio to alter cure time
    • Strength, thermal, and chemical resistance will be adversely affected

    Bonding Precautions

    • Satisfactory bond joints in aircraft should develop the full strength of wood under all conditions of stress
    • Bonding operations must be carefully controlled to obtain a continuous thin and uniform film of solid adhesive
    • Adequate adhesion and penetration into both surfaces of the wood are crucial

    Preparation of Wood Surfaces for Bonding

    • It is recommended that no more time than necessary be allowed between final surfacing and bonding
    • Keep prepared surfaces covered with a clean plastic sheet or other material to maintain cleanliness
    • Mating surfaces should be machined smooth and true with planers, joiners, or special miter saws
    • Planer marks, chipped or loosened grain, and other irregularities are not permitted
    • Sandpaper must never be used to smooth softwood surfaces to be bonded
    • Sawn surfaces must approach well-planed surfaces in uniformity, smoothness, and freedom from crushed fibers
    • Clean both joint surfaces with a vacuum cleaner just prior to adhesive application
    • Wood surfaces ready for bonding must be free from oil, wax, varnish, shellac, lacquer, enamel, dope, sealers, paint, dust, dirt, adhesive, crayon marks, and other materials
    • Roughening smooth, well-planed surfaces of normal wood before bonding is not recommended
    • Sanding of surfaces with a fine grit may improve penetration by the adhesive of aged or polished surfaces
    • Sanding should not alter the flatness of the surface
    • Light sanding may also improve the wetting of the adhesive to hard or resinous materials

    Wetting Tests

    • Wetting tests can detect the presence of wax, old adhesive, and finish
    • A drop of water that does not spread or wet the wood rapidly indicates that the surface is difficult to bond
    • Good wettability is only an indication that a surface can be bonded satisfactorily
    • Preliminary bonding tests and bond strength tests are the only ways to determine bonding characteristics

    Applying the Adhesive

    • Spread the adhesive in a thin, even layer on both surfaces to be joined
    • Use a clean brush to ensure all surfaces are covered
    • Follow the adhesive manufacturer's application instructions

    Assembly Time in Bonding

    • Pot life is the usable life of the adhesive from the time that it is mixed until it must be spread onto the wood surface
    • Open assembly time is the period from the moment the adhesive is spread until the parts are clamped together
    • Closed assembly time is the period from the moment the structure parts are placed together until clamping pressure is applied
    • Pressing (or clamping) time is the period during which the parts are pressed tightly together and the adhesive cures
    • Follow the adhesive manufacturer's instructions for all time limits in the bonding process

    Bond Process Recommendations

    • If recommended assembly periods are exceeded, stop the bonding process and discard parts if feasible.
    • If parts cannot be discarded, remove the partially cured adhesive and clean the bond line before applying new adhesive.

    Bonding Temperature

    • The temperature of the bond line affects the cure rate of the adhesive.
    • Resorcinol adhesive requires a minimum temperature throughout the curing process.
    • Different adhesive types require specific temperatures during the cure cycle, so follow the manufacturer's recommendations.

    Clamping Pressure

    • Apply recommended pressure to force adhesive into a thin, continuous film between wood layers.
    • This removes air from the joint and brings wood surfaces into intimate contact.
    • Pressure should be applied before the adhesive becomes too thick to flow.
    • Nonuniform clamping pressure can result in weak spots in the joint.
    • Clamping pressure requirements vary based on adhesive type and wood type being bonded.
    • Resorcinol adhesive typically requires 125-150 pounds per square inch for softwoods and 150-200 pounds per square inch for hardwoods.
    • Insufficient pressure or poorly machined wood surfaces can lead to thick bond lines and weak joints.
    • Some epoxy adhesives require less clamping pressure.
    • Always read and follow the manufacturer's instructions.

    Methods of Applying Pressure

    • Hand nailing is used for bonding ribs and applying plywood skins to wing, control surfaces, and fuselage frames.
      • Small brass screws can also be used for bonding small parts.
      • Nails and screws can cause splitting of small parts and provide vulnerable points for moisture entry.
    • Nailing or stapling is used for small joints with thin plywood gussets or outer skins.
      • Thin plywood nailing strips can distribute pressure and facilitate nail removal after curing.
    • Nail specifications:
      • Nail size should match member size.
      • Multiple rows of nails should be 1 inch apart with 1/2 inch spacing between rows.
      • Nails in adjacent rows should be staggered and not more than 3/4 inch apart.
      • Nail penetration should be at least 3/8 inch below the joint.
      • Nails should not protrude through the member below the joint for smaller members.
      • Drive nails with light strokes to avoid crushing wood.
    • Nail usage:
      • Some nails are removed after adhesive cure, while others remain in place.
      • Nails are used for clamping pressure during cure, not for holding members together in service.
      • Determine whether to remove nails based on existing nails from original aircraft manufacture.
    • Screw clamps are used for larger members, such as spar repairs.
      • Use strips or blocks to distribute pressure and protect members from crushing.
      • Strips or blocks should be twice as thick as the thinner member being bonded.
    • Post-clamping inspection:
      • Immediately after clamping or nailing, inspect the entire joint for uniform contact and adhesive squeeze-out.
      • Wipe away excess adhesive.

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    Description

    This quiz covers essential aspects of wood aircraft construction, including the types of wood used, their properties, and the importance of inspections for airworthiness. Participants will also learn about the effects of moisture on wood and the significance of using approved materials in aircraft construction.

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