Age of Metternich: Congress of Vienna

• The desire for new social and political changes grew due to the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic era
• The Congress of Vienna restored old regimes, with conservatives and Holy Alliance members striving to maintain the constitutional social order
• Klemens von Metternich was a major proponent, holding the main political power in the Austrian Empire with the non-independent Emperor Ferdinand I
• Metternich's absolutism, which followed the principles of the Congress of Vienna, was enforced from 1815-1848
• Metternich adhered to the principle of "Change Nothing" and opposed the implementation of policies expanding political rights
• Political associations were banned, which was felt most keenly by the German people living under surveillance
• Social movements emerged to dismantle the existing social order, a sign of the beginning of the Industrial Revolution
• Bourgeoisie wanted to oust the nobility
• Wealthy industrialists, who became powerful with capital, participated in political decision-making

Liberal Movements in Europe

• Industrial Revolution created wealthy industrialists and a new social class of workers who were the most decisive political actors
• Europe began to see liberal movements advocating for voting rights and human rights
• The Holy Alliance lost power due to liberal and social movements, leading to the formation of a liberal bloc in France and Great Britain, seeking change, gradual democracy, expansion of voting rights, constitutional implementation, and freedom of the press
• A conservative bloc, in the Austrian Empire and Russia, opposed changes, standing against liberal and national movements, advocating for legitimate authority, and emphasizing the importance of the church
• National consciousness developed in the 19th century, fueled by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution
• Romanticism developed national motifs, inspiring the development of national languages and theories of nationhood, which led to revolutions and wars
• National consciousness became strong, encouraging enlightenment and revolution
• Art and literature used folk motifs

Impact of the 1848 Revolution on Europe

• Liberal and national ideas spread through Europe after the July Revolution in France in 1789
• Governments often responded with repression, but by 1848, these ideas were more successful
• The revolution resulted from long-term discontent with absolutism and bourgeois dominance
• Revolutions broke out across Europe due to bad harvests, famine, and economic crises
• Liberalism sought a constitution, human rights, and parliamentary life; nationalism sought the unification of peoples and the formation of national states
• The two main ideas of the revolution were liberalism, seeking a constitution, human rights, and parliamentary life, and nationalism, seeking the unification of peoples and the formation of national states
• The revolution began in Palermo, Italy, on January 12, 1848, with France as the main epicenter
• News spread quickly, affecting Germany and the Austrian Empire; England and Russia, being strongly authoritarian, gained supporters, but revolution did not take hold due to the strength of the Ottoman Empire and Russia
• The revolution was driven by dissatisfied students, bourgeoisie, workers, and peasants seeking political influence, democracy, and the removal of feudalism
• Revolution involved uprisings and protests in cities, fighting, and the building of barricades

Outcomes of the Revolution

• Short-term consequences included the introduction of temporary institutions
• Long-term consequences included the removal of kings, a free press, the abolition of the death penalty for political offenses, improved conditions, and the desire for constitutional development and parliament
• The revolution in France had a liberal character, with demands for voting rights
• Unrest in Paris ended with Napoleon III becoming president and later emperor, ending the second revolution
• Revolutionary groups with different goals emerged in the German Confederation after the Napoleonic era
  • Students: Sought a united Germany
  • Middle class: Advocated for democratic reforms and economic policies
  • Working class: Also participated

Impact of the French Revolution

• Numerous uprisings occurred in March 1848 due to the French Revolution, leading to a liberal constitution, freedom of the press, and elections for a regional parliament
• The National Assembly in Frankfurt, which abolished censorship, adopted a constitution, and planned a unified parliament for the German Confederation, was convened
• Disagreements over who should lead the German Confederation led to two unification plans in 1848: a larger German plan, including Austria, and a smaller German plan, excluding Austria
• The Austrian Empire refused to cede its non-German territories, causing problems
• The German parliament gathered in Frankfurt to resolve issues through a constitution but did not fully address all problems
• Central authority emerged within the German states, headed by John, who was appointed as regent in June 1849
• The German confederal parliament offered the crown to the Prussian king, who refused it because it was a product of revolution

Failures and Successes

• The plan to unite Germany into a national state failed, but many liberal achievements were changed
• Liberal and national uprisings, led by organizations such as "Young Italy," occurred on the Apennine Peninsula, demanding a constitution and parliamentary system
• The Pope left Rome, returning in February 1849 and declaring a republic, but the French army and Napoleon later restored the papal state
• During the 1848 revolution, republics were declared in Milan and Venice, and Austrian troops were expelled
• King Karl Albert, an opponent of the national movement, declared war on the Austrian Empire, leading to a Holy War in which Mazzini and Garibaldi, key figures in a united Italy and members of "Young Italy" also participated as volunteers
• The centralist army consistently lost to the Austrian army, leading to an Austrian victory and the signing of an armistice by the Sardinian king
• In 1849, ITA relaunched the war and were defeated again, shattering the dream of a unified national state

Impact of the Revolution of 1848 on Austria

• It erupted on March 13, 1848, and is thus called the March Revolution
• Emperor Ferdinand I had to dismiss Metternich, and on March 15, he promised a constitution, freedom of the press, and the creation of national guards (armed citizens ensuring peace)
• A constitution was prepared, but it was unsatisfactory, leading to protests in Vienna
• A constituent assembly was convened on July 22 with the tasks of abolishing feudalism and enacting a constitution
• The abolition of feudalism with compensation was enacted on December 7, 1848
• Uprisings by Hungarians, who saw the revolution as an opportunity to fulfill national demands, caused unrest despite external political "peace"
• Vienna wanted to send troops against the Hungarians in October, but bourgeois uprisings prevented it
• At the end of October, Windschgreatz and Ban Jelačić suppressed the uprising
• Ferdinand I abdicated due to the revolution, giving way to his nephew Franz Joseph, who was crowned on December 2, 1848
• The revolutionaries encouraged Czechs (led by Palachy, who rejected elections in Frankfurt, stating that if Austria did not exist, it would have to be created for the benefit of the Slovenes, laying the foundation for Austroslavism) and Slovenes to revolt

Demands and Reactions

• Hungarians continued the revolution, demanding autonomy with Kossith (to be connected only by the ruler's person)
• Hungarians wanted their own national state, which Serbs, Slavs, Romanians, and especially Croats opposed, with Gaj leading Croatia
• Josip Jelačića led the breakthrough into Hungary, and in April 1849, Hungary declared independence
• The revolutions of 1848 significantly impacted the Austrian Empire, with elections in Frankfurt highlighting the diversity of nationalities within the empire
• Czechs, Slovenes, and Italians opposed the dominance of German political goals and feared underrepresentation
• These groups, especially the Slavs, strived to maintain separate Austrian identities and cultural development
• The Slavic Congress gathered in Prague in June 1848, demanding the exclusion of Slavic territories from the German Confederation
• The Austrian government responded with military intervention led by Windisvhgraetz
• Franz Joseph declared an imposed constitution and dissolved the parliament on March 4, 1849

Suppression of Revolution

• They successfully suppressed all revolutionary movements by August 1849 and ended the Hungarian national movement
• Revolutionary achievements were gradually abolished, including the removal of national guards and the responsibility of ministers to parliament
• Ministers became subordinate to the emperor
• Elements that were Retained: the end of feudalism, the bourgeoisie demonstrated a desire for parliamentary monarchy, and a desire for equality

Ideologies and Political Groups in the 19th Century

• Conservatism (Latin "conservare," meaning to preserve) aimed to maintain the existing state
• It advocated for the authority of government and hierarchy, with religion playing an important role
• Society was seen as composed of individuals, each with a designated function whose balanced functioning ensured social order
• They believed that too much freedom leads to chaos

Liberalism

• (Latin "liberalis," meaning free-thinking) aimed for fundamental societal changes
• They sought to eliminate the privileges of the nobility and clergy and establish a social order
• The church was to be separated from the state
• The individual had priority over society and advocated for freedom of thought
• Key figures were wealthy intellectuals who believed in advancing through education and work
• John Locke

Socialism

• (Latin "socialis," meaning society) advocated for societal changes, aiming to eliminate exploitation
• They sought to establish a dictatorship of the proletariat and advocated for atheism and opposed the church
• Removing social classes
• Key figures included intellectuals, artisans, and later workers
• William Goldwin

German Unification

• The German Confederation, established in 1815, was politically and religiously diverse
• The implementation of liberal and nationalistic ideas was difficult
• Austria and Prussia strongly opposed political reforms and suppressed all liberal and national movements
• Many leaders agreed to abolish the remnants of the feudal system and create liberal governments due to the revolutionary events of 1848
• How to organize a united Germany and determining the scope of the new state were central questions in the all-German parliament in Frankfurt
• The Minor German Plan failed after the Prussian King Frederick William IV rejected the imperial crown
• Erfurter Union, which included several North German states, was proposed instead
• Austria forced Prussia to restore the German Confederation against unifications, halting the process, with the help of the Treaty of Olomouc from 1851
• Austria's influence gradually declined as it faced internal problems, particularly with Hungary, and Prussia strengthened and modernized

Otto von Bismarck

• Modernized Prussia and the military, achieving Prussian dominance through realpolitik, which relies on power and pragmatism rather than ideology
• He wanted to unite Germany under Prussian leadership and succeeded by weakening Austrian and French influence
• The unification happened during and after the: German-Danish War, the Seven Weeks' War, and the Franco-Prussian War from 1867-1871
• After winning the Franco-Prussian War so in 1871, the German Empire was declared in Versailles
  • Wilhelm I was the emperor, and Bismarck was the minister-president
• The German Empire was organized as a federal state
  • Composed of three free cities and 22 German states with limited powers
  • Prussia had the most representatives in the state parliament and federal council
• Despite religious and national conflicts, the new state rapidly industrialized
• They became one of the most powerful European countries, connecting with Austria-Hungary and engaging in colonialism
• Bismarck's domestic policy was aimed against the Church and the growing socialist movement
• The state abolished the Jesuits, introduced civil marriage, took control of schools, and severed relations with the papacy during the cultural struggle between church and state
• A law was made in 1883 about health, with parliament not renewing anti-socialist measures in 1890, which lead to Bismarck getting fired

Unification of Italy

• The idea of uniting Italian territories under the Sardinian kingdom strengthened in Italy
• The Risorgimento, a broad political and social movement, developed in the 19th century due to Italians' desire to unite into a national state
• The First War for Italian Independence ended in defeat, but the Sardinian kingdom took the lead in uniting Italy
• This constitutional monarchy modernized rapidly under Cavour
• Cavour gained the support of Napoleon III by participating in the Crimean War, promising Nice and Savoy in return
• Austria was unhappy and issued an ultimatum for disarmament, leading to the Second War for Independence
• The Austrians lost in two battles, signed a treaty in 1859, and withdrew their troops
• Napoleon III allowed Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Emilia to be annexed to the Sardinian kingdom, which was confirmed in a plebiscite
• Garibaldi occupied Sicily with volunteers in 1860
• Because of his heroic deeds, Garibaldi became famous during the Risorgimento

Establishment of the Kingdom of Italy

• After the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies came under King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia, the population confirmed the annexation through a plebiscite
• The new Italian parliamentary assembly gathered in Turin in February 1861 and declared the Kingdom of Italy in March
• The new state adopted a constitutional monarchy with King Victor Emmanuel II as the first king and Camillo Benso di Cavour as prime minister
• The king gained significant power under the constitution because he could appoint government officials which were responsible to the parliament
• The government mainly consisted of wealthy citizens (factory owners, banks, large trading companies) and landowners
• Despite unification, Italy faced lasting internal challenges, including poor infrastructure, widespread illiteracy, poverty in the south, emigration, and differences between the industrialized north and agricultural south

Consolidation and Challenges

• After the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, not all Italian territories were united
• Venetia and the Papal States, including Rome, remained outside Italian control in 1861
• Garibaldi attempted to seize Rome in 1862 which failed due to international pressure
• Italy regained Venetia after the Austro-Prussian War in 1866
• Rome was annexed in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War, when the French troops protecting the Pope withdrew
• The Pope was offered diplomatic immunity, but the official agreement between the Italian state and the Catholic Church was only achieved in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty
• The issue of including Italian-populated regions in Austria-Hungary was defended
• Despite unification, Italy's path to becoming a major European power was long and required diplomatic skill, which paid off in the early 20th century

Imperialism and Colonial Division of the World

• There was peace after the unification of Germany and Italy, with the Franco-Prussian War being the last before World War I
• European powers, along with the United States and Japan, competed for colonial possessions in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Ocean
• An economic crisis in 1873 prompted this drive
• Imperialism in 19th century: An era of striving for economic and political domination
• Countries wanted to look for more trade routes and resources

Factors Behind Imperialism

• Nationalism: Countries sought colonies to enhance prestige and national identity, as seen in Italy's goal to revive the glory of the Roman Empire
• Rivalry among European powers: Competition for colonies often led to conflicts and further expansion
• European cultural "superiority"
• British imperialist policy had two goals: maintaining the sea route to India and securing colonial possessions in Africa
• Great Britain reached the height of its expansionist policy under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli
• Great Britain became a naval power by the early 20th century, establishing a vast colonial empire
• India was the "jewel of the British crown" due to its natural resources and raw materials
• British Colonial Minister Joseph Chamberlain wanted to transform the empire into a community of nations, closely linked to Great Britain which were settled by Britons.

Other Imperial Powers

• French imperialist policy focused on expanding colonial possessions in Africa and Indochina
• Siam (Thailand) preserved its internal independence despite the expansion of foreign colonial possessions
• The German Empire sought colonial possessions
• They had a tardy start, beginning with the Molonians in the late 19th century, and were considered a "delayed nation"
• After emerging victorious in this war with Spain, the United States gained various Spanish possessions
• The country sought to ensure their sphere domination Latin America via funding
• The construction of the Panama Canal (completed in 1914), connecting the Atlantic and Pacific, had strategic and economic importance
• Japan became the leading Asian power due to successful reforms
• Won victory with China and Russia
• Gained Manchuria
• The U.S. tried to limit Japanese influence
• Russia and Austrian-Hungary attempted to split the countries involved for their own means
• Italy gained possessions in Libya and Somalia
• Austria-Hungary spread influence in the Balkans
• The Ottoman Empire had influence in the east, though its power was fading
• Africa became the main stage for European colonial policy by the end of the 19th century; colonizers controlled almost the entire continent by the early 20th century