Age of Exploration (1450-1800)

A practice in which a person could purchase forgiveness for their sins, reducing the time they would spend in purgatory.

The sale of church offices and positions, often for personal gain.

The belief that salvation is achieved solely through personal faith in Jesus Christ, without the need for good works or church rituals.

Martin Luther's protest against the Catholic Church's practices, including indulgences and the authority of the Pope. He argued that individuals could have a direct relationship with God without relying on the Church.

The separation of a new Protestant church from the Catholic Church.

European advantage in colonization of the Americas, where Europeans brought diseases to which Native Americans had no immunity, along with advanced weaponry, making conquest easier.

The demand for labor in the Americas, due to the declining Native American population, led to the transatlantic slave trade, bringing African slaves to the New World.

Europeans traded weapons for slaves, fueling both the slave trade and the expansion of European power.

The exchange of food, diseases, and manufactured goods between the Old and New Worlds, creating a global network of trade.

The growth of a global economy connected by trade, but with uneven benefits for different regions and populations.

The process of European colonization of certain parts of the world, enabled by the advantages and consequences of the Columbian Exchange.

Christopher Columbus, sailing for Spain, reached the Caribbean in 1492, marking a turning point in world history.

Columbus's initial impressions of the Tainos, describing them as uncivilized and ready for conversion, influenced European perceptions of Native Americans.

The Peace of Augsburg (1555) was a treaty that allowed German states to choose their dominant religion (Catholic or Protestant) based on the majority belief in the region. Individuals who disagreed with the majority religion were allowed to relocate to a state where their religion was the majority.

The Holy Roman Empire (HRE) was a loose federation of states in central Europe, headed by an elected emperor. While the emperor held some power, the HRE was greatly influenced by its powerful princes and the changing religious landscape of Europe.

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was a devastating conflict in Europe that involved religious, political, and territorial disputes. It resulted in the deaths of over one-third of the population and significantly weakened the HRE, paving the way for new political and religious boundaries.

During the Habsburg reign, there was extensive political maneuvering through strategic marriages, alliances, and attempts to control various states within the Holy Roman Empire. This strategy aimed to secure and maintain power, but also contributed to the religious conflicts that plagued the region.

The period from 1642 to 1649 in English history marked by conflict between the Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and Royalists (Cavaliers), stemming from disagreements over the power of the monarchy.

The Parliamentarians, supporters of the English Parliament, who fought against the Royalists during the English Civil War.

The supporters of the British monarchy who fought against the Parliament during the English Civil War.

The execution of King Charles I by Parliament in 1649, ending the monarchy and marking a significant shift in English governance.

The period following the execution of Charles I, from 1649 to 1660, where England was ruled by a republic led by Oliver Cromwell.

Oliver Cromwell, the military leader who eventually became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, known for his strict rule and religious intolerance.

The restoration of the monarchy in England in 1660, with the return of Charles II from exile.

A bloodless revolution in England in 1688 that led to the replacement of James II with William and Mary, resulting in a shift to a parliamentary monarchy.

A European-dominated global economy emerged in the 17th century, with European nations like England, France, and Holland gaining economic dominance. This new system prioritized manufacturing, trade, and colonies, creating a network of economic dependence.

Mercantilism was a set of economic policies practiced by European nations during the 17th and 18th centuries. It emphasized national wealth accumulation through trade. These policies aimed to protect domestic markets, promote exports, and restrict imports, often through tariffs and subsidies.

Joint-stock companies were businesses created to pool resources from multiple investors to finance large-scale ventures, such as voyages of exploration and trade. Investors purchased shares in the company, sharing in its potential profits or losses. These companies became influential in world trade during the Age of Exploration.

The British East India Company, a prominent joint-stock company, gained significant influence in India through trade and eventually played a key role in British colonization of the region. This company established vast trading networks and became a major political force.

The Dutch East India Company, another powerful joint-stock company, controlled trade routes to the spice islands (Indonesia). This control gave them significant economic power and influence in the region.

This transatlantic system of forced labor, spanning from Africa to the Americas, involved the transportation of millions of Africans as slaves. The European demand for cheap labor in the Americas fueled this brutal trade, leaving a lasting legacy on the Americas and Africa.

The European colonial system, driven by the expansion of world trade and the demand for cheap labor, led to a pattern of economic dependence and exploitation. Colonies, primarily in the Americas and Africa, were forced to provide raw materials and cheap products to European markets, while receiving manufactured goods from European centers.

Africa’s role in the emerging world economy was primarily as a source of slaves, driven by the demand for labor in the Americas. European powers, including Portugal and Britain, controlled trade routes and often profited from the slave trade. African rulers and traders also participated in this trade and often gained wealth through taxing the slave trade.

The Russian nobility during the era of Tsarina Catherine the Great. They played a vital role in governing and maintaining the Tsar's power.

Serfs were bound to the land and obligated to work for their landlords, limiting their economic and social mobility.

A large-scale revolt by Russian peasants against the Tsarist regime, fueled by resentment towards the boyars and oppression.

A group of warrior peasants who led a rebellion against the Russian Empire, highlighting discontent among the lower classes.

The expansion of the Russian Empire into new territories beyond its traditional borders, seeking resources, trade, and power.

A series of military conflicts between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, fought for control over strategic territories in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions.

A period of relative stability and economic growth in Russia under Catherine the Great, driven by agricultural expansion and increased trade.

Empires that rose to prominence in the 15th-18th centuries and used gunpowder-based weapons to build large empires.

Empires that rose to prominence in the 15th-18th centuries and used gunpowder innovations to conquer vast territories.

The Ottoman Empire was the largest and longest-lasting of the Gunpowder Empires, controlling significant parts of the Eastern Mediterranean, Middle East, and North Africa.

The Ottoman Empire's initial tolerance of other religions led to its expansion, as it avoided unnecessary conflicts based on religious persecution.

Janissaries were elite Ottoman soldiers recruited from Christian boys, converted to Islam, and trained in warfare. They played a key role in the Ottoman military.

The reign of Suleiman I (the Magnificent) marked a golden age in the Ottoman Empire, characterized by military expansion, cultural blossoming, and economic prosperity.

A significant turning point in the Ottoman Empire, where the influx of silver from the Americas disrupted the Ottoman economy and led to social unrest.

The Ottoman Empire's blend of military strength, administrative efficiency, and cultural diversity allowed it to create a unique synthesis of Eastern and Western influences.