African Independence & Political Authority

• African Kaleidoscope is the study of state and political authority in Africa.
• It studies Africa after independence, what a liberal democracy is, the illusion of democracy, the army as a political actor, examples of countries, the 1999 organization of African unity declaration, weak states, political instability, the corruption issue, human rights, and political authoritarianism.

Africa After Independence

• Most African states were unable to transition from a colonial system to a democratic system.
• In 2020, only 18 African countries were considered democratic.
• In most African states, power is held by the army or by long-term leaders.
• In Algeria, Houari Boumedienne's coup d'état resulted in the Algerian Army holding the political power.
• In Libya, Muammar Gaddafi led from 1970 for 41 years before being overthrown in 2011.

Liberal Democracy

• Executive and legislative powers get legitimacy from free and regular elections.
• There is an effective separation of powers.
• Each power is balanced by other powers.
• Laws or a constitution guarantee fundamental liberties like freedom of speech.

The Illusion of Democracy in Africa

• Many countries in Africa describe themselves as democratic, like the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
• Elections in many of these states are not free and fair.
• Votes are rigged, with leaders often winning by irrational scores of over 70% of votes.
• Political opponents are imprisoned for denouncing corruption.
• There is no real freedom of expression, with the press under control.
• Opponents and independent journalists often seek asylum abroad.
• Presidents may try to change the constitution to prolong their mandates if a constitutional limit exists.
• In Algeria, President Abdelaziz Bouteflika attempted to revise the constitution in 2009 to serve more than two terms, but was supported by a parliament dominated by the executive power and a constitutional court/supreme court not really independent.
• In many African states, there are classical institutions, but there is no effective separation of powers; the judiciary is controlled by the executive.
• Judges are appointed by the executive and may be murdered for asserting independence.
• Members of Parliament from the Presidents political party give unconditional support.
• Democracy is an illusion, and the regimes are authoritarian.

The Army as a Political Actor

• The army is the real executive and political power in many African states, whether officially or not.
• Civil power is directly overthrown by a military "putsch," with the "junta" formalizing power to restore "order."
• In Mali in 2020, the civilian government was overthrown due to being considered incapable of fighting terrorist groups.
• Military putsches have also occurred in Burkina Faso and Niger.
• The seizure of power is described as short-term.
• Sometimes the army remains behind the scenes but controls the whole system.

Examples: The Algerian Case

• In 1988, demonstrations in Algerian cities called for economic reforms and liberties.
• President Chadli Benjedid launched a democratic process leading to free elections.
• The Islamist party, the Islamic Salvation Front, won local and parliamentary elections until the Algerian Army cancelled the round session of elections.
• A civil war began between 100,000 and 200,000 deaths in the "dark" years.
• In 1992, President Mohamed Boudiaf was murdered by his bodyguard after trying to push the military from political power.

1999 Organization of African Unity Declaration

• The Organization of African Unity summit was held in Algiers.
• The objective was to make any coup d'etat on the African continent illegal.
• The CEDEAO did not recognize new leaders in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger.

Weak States and Political Instability

• Many African states are very poor, including Niger and Somalia.
• There is weak authority from the central state due to a lack of means to apply it.
• The army and police cannot ensure security.
• States are unable to manage conflicts between populations/ethnicities and tensions.
• Large spaces are controlled by terrorist or separatist groups.
• Central states do not have a monopoly on legitimate violence.
• People flee from one space to another.
• States do not have the means to ensure basic needs of populations.
• Basic services (power, water) are unavailable to populations.
• Electrification rates are 32% in Sub-Saharan Africa.
• 281 million Africans suffer from malnutrition.
• In 2021, 490 million people lived under the poverty line.
• In 2015, 35 million children did not attend primary school.
• Strong discrimination happens against populations in territories like North Mali.
• Faced with voids, people turn to other authority like in northern Nigeria where populations support Islamist groups.

The Corruption Issue

• Despite resources like oil and cobalt, Africa is the poorest continent.
• The populations in the DC of Congo and Nigeria do not benefit from soil exploitation.
• Corruption in Africa is high.
• Cash is sent abroad where politicians buy homes and assets.
• High corruption hinders development and fuels conflicts, leading to civil wars.

Human Rights in Africa

• Africa is considered the worst place for human rights.
• Human rights activists are imprisoned, tortured, or murdered.
• LGBT community activists face imprisonment for promoting same-sex rights.
• Freedom of speech is not guaranteed and opponents may be imprisoned or exiled.
• In Egypt, 40,000 people are imprisoned for political opinions.
• Torture and rape are practiced.
• Forced disappearances are common.
• Efforts have been made to promote human rights.
• Many African countries modified their constitutions.
• Initiatives to promote human rights have been launched.
• The African Charter for Human Rights and People in 1981.
• The African Charter for Democracy, Governance, and Elections in 2007.

Authoritarianism as a Source of Instability

• A lack of democracy is correlated with a lack of freedom and corruption.
• People leave home to better their lives abroad.
• Authoritarian regimes can lead people to protest or join rebellions.
• Instability can lead to political troubles and civil war.

Authoritarian Regimes and Popular Revolts: Uganda

• Milton Obote led the presidential regime in the 1970s.
• Idi Amin Dada was his main political opponent.
• He organized a coup in 1971 supported by the UK.
• He grew with support at the beginning.
• Xenophobia led to all Indo-Pakistanis being expelled in 1972 resulting in economic decline.
• Amin's policies became more repressive after an assassination attempt.
• Almost 300,000 people were killed or disappeared.
• Obote overthrew Amin in 1979.

Authoritarian Regimes and Popular Revolts: Former Zaire

• It was under Belgian ruling until 1960.
• Mobutu Sese Seko became president in 1965.
• Mobutu was described as a tyrant and corrupt leader.
• A military rebellion upraised with the support of Rwanda.
• Mobutu was overthrown in 1997 and Laurent Desire Kabila became the new president.
• Laurent Desire Kabila's rules were considered more brutal.
• He was assassinated in 2001.
• The country is still in a state of civil war.

Authoritarian Regimes and Oppression: The Arab Spring

• The Arab Spring began in Tunisia in December 2010.
• Mohamed Bouazizi was selling fruits in Tunisia.
• He had a high unemployment rate.
• His material was seized by the police.
• Mohamed set himself on fire and died weeks later.
• Demonstrations started across the country condemning the economy, oppression, and absence of freedom.
• President Ben Ali left the country in January 2011.
• Protests spread to Libya, Egypt, Syria, Bahrein, Yemen, etc.

From an Arab Spring to an Islamist Winter?

• Tunisia established a new constitution and new elections were held.
• A new government was put in place, dominated by the Islamic party Ennahda, but they failed to solve the economic crisis.
• President Moubarak in Egypt was overthrown by the army.
• Mohamed Morsi was democratically elected, but he and his party, the Muslim Brotherhood, became unpopular.
• Morsi was overthrown by the army in 2013.
• Tunisia and Egypt are ruled by authoritarian presidents.
• International intervention in Libya led to the death of leaders like Gaddafi.
• The country is facing a civil war since 2011.
• The lack of democracy is a fatal issue for Africa.