African Americans in WWI: Challenges & Resistance

The Year of Racial Violence Introduction

• Focuses on examining the swift mobilization for World War I. Provides context for understanding African Americans' resistance to violence.

Chapter Outline

• Chapters 2-6 cover self-defense in various locations: Charleston, Washington, Longview, Chicago, and Phillips County, Arkansas.
• Chapter 7 examines black women's resistance.
• Chapters 8-9 the pursuit of justice after the riots, including charges against white rioters and campaigns to overturn death sentences.
• The final chapter analyzes African Americans' resistance to lynch mobs.
• The conclusion offers an overview of 1919's aftermath and the historical significance of African Americans' resistance.

World War I

• Initially known as "the war to end all wars" among Americans, reflecting optimism and ambition to the conflict that started in Europe in 1914.
• President Woodrow Wilson saw America's entry in 1917 to make "the world safe for democracy."
• Wilson wanted to establish the League of Nations post-war to deter aggression and promote democracy.
• African Americans viewed the war, as an opportunity to address America's deficiencies like voting rights, lynching, mob violence, and segregation.

Black Contributions and Expectations

• Almost 370,000 black men served in the military, with millions more contributing through factory work, Liberty Loans, and rationing.
• Wartime service strengthened black Americans resolve to win constitutional rights, adapting Wilsonian rhetoric and challenging Jim Crow laws.
• Black veterans were seen as key figures in the fight for democracy, supported by black women forming a "cooperative notion of manhood"

Discrimination in the Military

• The Marine Corps did not enlist blacks, while the Navy restricted them to menial roles.
• The Army segregated units and mainly assigned black conscripts to labor battalions: Services of Supply (SOS).
• SOS units faced abuse and deprivation, with black soldiers sometimes hired out to civilian contractors and subjected to racial slurs.
• A segregated officer training camp was eventually established due to pressure from black universities.

Segregated Combat Divisions

• Des Moines, Iowa was home to a segregated officer training facility. It was only established after considerable pressure from black universities.
• The Ninety-second and Ninety-third divisions were impacted by racism.
• The 370th Regiment of the Ninety-third Division encountered prejudice during their service in France.
• Racism impacted combat readiness, which saw the 369th regiment assigned to laying railroad tracks despite being needed in combat.

Black Support at Home

• Black communities raised money for the YMCA: The Young Men's Christian Association and the YWCA: The Young Women's Christian Association, to support troops.
• They also worked with the American Library Association to teach illiterate draftees, including some African Americans.
• They participated in bandage-rolling for the Red Cross and the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses lobbied for black nurses to be accepted into service.
• E. Azalia Hackley organized events displaying African Americans' contributions the Allied efforts and linking the struggle for freedom to their past.

The Great Migration and Racial Tensions

• Half a million African Americans' relocated from the rural South to Northern cities between 1914-1920 due to floods, cotton crop failures, and debt peonage.
• The outbreak of World War I halted European immigration, creating a labor shortage in Northern factories and recruiters encouraged black migration.
• Tensions rose in cities due to new residents, leading to race riots in East St. Louis, Chicago, and Gary. White southerners were angered by losing cheap labor.

East St. Louis Riot

• The black population had almost tripled between 1890-1917.
• Employers encouraged animus and economic tension between workers.
• Whites resented blacks rising prosperity and targeted black neighborhoods May-June 1917.
• The chief of police failed to stop attacks and talked about cracking down on black criminals.
• Black citizens, supported by community institutions, prepared to defend themselves with arms.
• There was careful weapons placement, with the Odd Fellows marching society serving as a front for drilling and preparation.
• Black church bell used as warning sign for attacks.
• White drive-by shooters were met with black sniper fire until federal forces arrived to quell the violence.
• Mob violence lasted 3 days and led to 39 black and 9 white deaths, causing $3 Million in damages.

Houston Riot

• White police officers in Houston were antagonistic towards black soldiers from the Twenty-fourth Infantry, Third Battalion.
• An officer assaulted a black private on August 23, 1917, following a black woman's arrest.
• Soldiers reclaimed weapons and fought white people in Houston's Sixth Ward after white police officers were beating African-Americans on streetcars.
• The army harshly punished the rebellious troops, convicting 58 of 63 defendants during 3 courts martials and 13 sentences of death.
• Aggressive actions by police and the abuse of power led to the growing struggle between citizenship and supremacy.

Additional Conflicts

• 1917 Chester Pennsylvania, as well as other small fights between black and white units in training were common.
• There was also black segregation in housing which triggered bombing campaigns by white supremacists toward black residences.
• Many Americans resented seeing black boosts in prosperity because of the job opportunities in the military.

The "New Negro Identity"

• Black writers, journalists, and editors strove to end white supremacy and encourage African Americans in the domestic freedom struggle.
• This bolstered those who wanted to unite communities within the African diaspora.
• The wartime fashioning of this New Negro identity armed and readied African Americans for collective violence 1919.

Racial Uplift

• Post-Uplift the black elite had racial uplift ideology built on middle class morality and self-improvement.
• These proponents wanted to quell white racism and gain white allies to give and restore black men's rights; political and social.
• Middle class women pushed for bourgeois respectability and sexual purity. These new ideas wanted protection for domestic black women.
• The new ideas wanted more equality for men so they can resist emasculation and establish an ideal identity for black men.

Harrison and Ferris

• William H. Ferris (1913) wanted black men to adopt the traits that supposedly made "Anglo-Saxons" the world's master race; traits like power, protection of purity, and general competitiveness.
• Hubert Harrison wanted equality for both black Americans, but also the 250 million Africans that also wanted more freedom and better opportunity.
• Harrison celebrated East St. Louis black armed resistance saying that there needs to be deaths on both side in order to ensure protection lives and property.
• He questioned the elite relying on racial uplift, and instead wanted the masses to become the new idea in order to weaken white supremacy in all forms.

Garvey

• Marcus Garvey settled in New York (1916) and attracted followers and attention as he wanted a more racially equal society/nation.
• No minor humiliation should go unseen as people should respond with similar acts accordingly for the overall common good.
• He also celebrated armed black resistance and wanted to see attacks helped convince more blacks that there was great strength in having communities to help rid Africa of European colonialism.

Socialism

• After initial disillusionment Harrison pushes for more race conscious class activism.
• C. Owen (1889) and A. Phillip were socialists who had more devotion to white supremacy (end all its forms).
• in 1917, Harrison and. Randolph created the Messenger a monthly magazine for the promotion of interracial solidary that ended all forms of white supremacy.

Wilson

• During his time as president he used the world war as an excuse to promote racial uplift and freedom during the current era.
• While there was plenty support, however, most people wanted to make the war effort be over quickly as there has already been so many casualties (dead and wounded).

Reactions amongst the voices

• Monroe did not like segregated army officer training and celebrated armed self-defense. He warned what men plant they shall surely gather,
• Du Bois's famously called closed ranks as he wanted to join to fight the allied victory after a great gain in winning the rights that blacks deserve.
• Johnsons linked war to winning at home and that the same could be applied to all the American people.

Owen and Randolph

• Although socialists, both wanted more for African Americans, seeing Wilson as more of a fraud than a man with actual intent.
• When trying to give lectures, many armed white supremacists would arrest the men and cause constant disruption.

Editors Post War

• No matter their positions, many were more hopefully cautious that America would actually make it safe for democracy.
• Many wanted more to be done, however the feelings were generally cautious about what would be next.

Praise For Self Defense

• Kerlin believed this could give more insight on the Negro as he has seen more aggression and change post war.
• A call out has been called by Kansas City for all the wrongs that whites have done.
• Protection was on the mind for those down south.

New Negro Description

• The New Negro would be someone with a will of Iron that fights for what he needs from white mobs.
• There had been many poems which have been released since these events happened which celebrate black power.
• Many had strong thoughts on what actions should be taken going forward.

Figures

• They had the women praise the war effort as seen during the great war.
• The nurses had exemplified great traits that are known today (such as service and care).
• Their have been great ideals that came from the power of independence that comes from the mindsets.
• Many of these ideals that are here in effect today show that there are no black figures that must serve for whites.

Johnsons writing

• Hopes as well as the equality to many other great writings that show great resistance among black people.
• Killing blacks to lead them a message will show the overall harm as opposed to what can heal with the black solderis deaths during this war.
• There are no longer a lot of servitude jobs the same way as before.

The Black Man

• The Black Man Fought and will continue demand greatness today, while still remembering the history from a while decade ago during our grandfathers generation and older.
• All the issues that are going on now would have been credited it all to Wilson as there are those in a movement of resistance that pushes attacks from the white army.
• Freedom as well as some many social issues will have more domestic battles so those will tend to play themselves out to some degree.