Africa: Cold War, Spheres of Influence, and Proxy Wars

Impact of Internal and External Factors on Africa in the 1960s and 1970s

Cold War

• A geopolitical conflict between the USA and USSR from 1947-1991
• Was fought through proxy wars, espionage, and ideological competition rather than direct military confrontation
• Key role players in the Cold War included the USA, USSR, NATO, and Warsaw Pact

Sphere of Influence

• A geopolitical area where a powerful nation exerts significant political, economic, or military control
• Control is often without direct territorial ownership
• Angola became a contested sphere of influence during the Cold War between the Eastern Bloc (Soviet Union and Cuba) and the Western Bloc (USA and its allies)
• The USSR and Cuba supported the MPLA, while the USA and South Africa backed UNITA and FNLA

Decolonisation

• African nations gained independence from European colonial rule
• Frequently led to political instability and external interference

Proxy War

• A conflict in which external powers support opposing sides
• Geopolitical interests are advanced without direct military engagement

Apartheid

• South Africa's policy of racial segregation
• Influenced military and political interventions in Angola and Namibia

Containment Policy

• US Cold War strategy
• Aimed at preventing the spread of communism
• Influenced its support for UNITA in Angola

Angolan Civil War (1975–2002)

• A conflict between rival political and military groups in Angola
• Fueled by Cold War rivalries and regional conflicts
• Involved key players such as MPLA, UNITA, FNLA, USSR, USA, Cuba, and South Africa

MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola)

• A socialist-leaning liberation movement that became Angola’s ruling party after independence
• Received support from the USSR and Cuba
• Notable figures linked to this movement include Agostinho Neto, José Eduardo dos Santos, Fidel Castro, and USSR

UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola)

• A US- and South African-backed anti-communist movement
• Opposed the MPLA during the Angolan Civil War
• Jonas Savimbi, South African Defence Force (SADF), USA, and Zaire were its key players

FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola)

• A nationalist movement opposing Portuguese rule
• Later backed by the USA and Zaire but weakened after the 1970s
• Figures such as Holden Roberto, USA, Zaire, and Mobutu Sese Seko played crucial roles

Cuban Military Intervention (1975–1991)

• Cuba sent thousands of troops to support the MPLA against UNITA and South African forces
• Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro, and Cuban Armed Forces spearheaded this intervention

South African Defence Force (SADF)

• The military of the apartheid government
• Intervened in Angola to combat the MPLA and protect its regional interests
• Key officers involved were PW Botha and Magnus Malan

Operation Savannah (1975–1976)

• A covert South African military intervention in Angola
• Aimed at supporting UNITA and FNLA against the MPLA
• The SADF, UNITA, FNLA, and South Africa were key participants

SWAPO (South West African People's Organization)

• A nationalist movement that later became a political party
• Led the struggle for Namibia’s independence from South African rule
• Had strong ties to the MPLA in Angola and received military support from the USSR and Cuba
• During the Angolan Civil War, its armed wing PLAN (People's Liberation Army of Namibia) operated from Angola to launch guerrilla attacks against South African forces
• SWAPO's role was closely linked to the Cold War dynamics in southern Africa
• Sam Nujoma was the founding president of SWAPO and later became Namibia's first president in 1990

PLAN (People's Liberation Army of Namibia)

• The military wing of SWAPO
• Carried out guerrilla attacks against South African forces from bases in Angola

Battle of Cuito Cuanavale (1987–1988)

• A key Cold War battle in southern Angola
• Fought between the SADF/UNITA and the MPLA/Cuban forces
• Considered a turning point in the region
• Involved the SADF, UNITA, MPLA, Cuban Armed Forces, and USSR advisors

FAPLA (People’s Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola)

• The military wing of the MPLA
• Supported by the USSR and Cuba
• Included members of the Angolan government, Soviet military advisors, and Cuban forces

Zaire’s Involvement

• Zaire (now the DRC) supported the FNLA and later UNITA
• Acted as a conduit for US and Western aid
• Mobutu Sese Seko, FNLA, and the USA were all involved

US Involvement (Covert Aid via CIA)

• The USA provided financial and military support to UNITA and FNLA to counter Soviet influence
• Henry Kissinger, as U.S. Secretary of State (1973–1977), played a key role in shaping U.S. Cold War policy in Africa
• Kissinger supported anti-communist forces in Angola through covert CIA operations under Operation IA Feature, viewing the Angolan Civil War as a key battleground in the Cold War
• Ronald Reagan, CIA, Jonas Savimbi, and Holden Roberto were key players
• The Clark Amendment in 1976 limited U.S. aid to Angolan factions and diminished Kissinger's influence

USSR’s Role in Angola

• The Soviet Union provided military and financial aid to the MPLA
• Goal was to establish a socialist state in Angola
• Key figures included Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet military advisors, and Neto

Brazzaville Accord (1988)

• A diplomatic agreement that led to the withdrawal of Cuban and South African forces from Angola
• Paved the way for Namibian independence
• Involved Angola, Cuba, South Africa, USA, and UN

Namibian Independence (1990)

• A direct outcome of Cold War conflicts in Southern Africa influenced by the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
• SWAPO, UN, South Africa, and Namibia were involved

Frontline States

• A group of Southern African nations that opposed apartheid and South African aggression in the region
• Included Zambia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Angola

Angolan War of Independence (1961-1974) and Civil War

• After nearly 13 years of fighting for independence, Angola was plunged into a civil war between nationalist movements
• The MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA were key parties, with the war beginning in 1975 and lasting 27 years due to foreign intervention
• The USA and USSR exploited the situation to further their Cold War rivalry, using proxies such as Cuba and South Africa

Africa and the Cold War

• Granting independence to African countries opened the continent to the USA and USSR
• Superpowers used the "Third World" to indirectly fight each other, involving themselves in African liberation struggles
• Both aimed to control resources, territory, and people to expand their spheres of influence
• Newly independent African countries were vulnerable and became pawns in the Cold War

Sphere of Influence during the Cold War

• Referred to areas where the USA or USSR had great cultural, economic, political, or military control
• Countries within a superpower’s sphere were often seen as an extension of that superpower
• Spheres of influence were achieved through trade, conflict, and aid
• Angola was entangled in the superpowers' efforts to bring it under their respective spheres of influence

Trade during the Cold War

• The USSR sponsored communist and socialist governments, while the USA supported capitalist nations
• Both controlled trade within their spheres of influence to prevent opponents from becoming more powerful
• Angola was rich in resources like oil, diamonds, and fertile land, making it a target for both the USA and USSR

Conflict and Aid during the Cold War

• Maintaining a "balance of power" was crucial due to the threat of atomic and nuclear war
• Superpowers offered aid packages, including food, infrastructure, and loans to establish and strengthen their spheres of influence
• In Angola, both sides provided military equipment and assistance to their allies

NATO and the Warsaw Pact

• NATO was established in 1949 by countries such as America, Britain, and France to counter the Soviet Union
• The Warsaw Pact was signed in 1955 by the USSR and communist countries in Eastern Europe
• It vowed to defend any member under attack
• Served as representations of the USA's and USSR's spheres of influence

Angola and the Warsaw Pact

• After independence, Angola signed the Warsaw Pact and fell under the USSR's sphere of influence
• Resulted in anxiety for the USA

Colonial Rule by the Portuguese

• Paulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda in 1577, where 100 families and 400 Portuguese soldiers settled
• Portugal ruled Angola for the following 400 years without significantly developing it
• Fertile land was given to white farmers, forcing the Angolans to work long hours on cotton or coffee plantations for very little pay

Angola and Portuguese Culture

• Became an overseas province of Portugal in 1951
• Africans were called assimilados and adopted the Portuguese language and culture, resulting in a hybrid society
• Groups included mesticos (in coastal towns), Creole families, and Portuguese-speaking blacks (on the coast and inland)
• These divisions, as well as tribalism, influenced the faction group formation later on

Independence and Warfare (1961-1974)

• Nationalistic demands of the Angolan people were ignored by the Portuguese regime
• Led to a War of Independence (1961-1974) between three nationalist movements (MPLA, FNLA, UNITA) and the Portuguese
• Each group waged guerrilla warfare against the Portuguese armed forces

MPLA (Popular Movement of the Liberation of Angola)

• Founded in 1956 by radical black intellectuals
• Represented the Ambundu people in north-central and coastal regions
• Had a large following in Luanda and controlled Angola’s main source of income, the Cabinda oil wells
• Led by Agostinho Neto, who became Angola’s first president
• He established strong connections with the USSR and Cuba
• Fought the Portuguese for independence in cooperation, but often in conflict, with the FNLA and UNITA
• Looked towards the East for support during the civil war
• Refashioned itself as a Marxist-Leninist party in 1977 and added the words Party of Labour (PT) to its name
• Neto died in Moscow in 1979 and was succeeded by José dos Santos, who shifted the party from its Marxist-Leninist stance to one more conducive to establishing relations with Western countries

FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola)

• Led by Holden Roberto
• Based in the north of the country and represented the Bakongo people
• Roberto was staunchly anti-communist and built strong ties with the U.S. ally, Mobutu Sese Seko, in Zaire
• He divorced his wife and married a woman from Mobutu's village
• Provided him with safe bases in Zaire from which to launch raids into Angola
• Formed a Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile (GRAE) in Kinshasa in 1972
• Received aid from China during the civil war

UNITA (National Union for Total Independence of Angola)

• Founded in 1966 as an offshoot of the FNLA and led by Jonas Savimbi
• Savimbi was the former Minister of Roberto’s GRAE
• Supported by the country's largest ethnic group, the Ovimbundu
• Originally supported by China but, remained anti-communist and received support during the Civil War from the USA and South Africa

The Angolan War of Independence

• Portugal's refusal to negotiate with nationalist leaders led to the Angolan War of Independence
• Catholic missionaries, Portuguese traders and government installations were attacked, resulting in deaths
• The Portuguese Armed Forces retaliated, causing rebels to form a guerrilla force
• The Portuguese changed their policies in Angola to include education, Western investment, and white settlement
• The colonial conflict ended only after the MFA coup in Portugal and the Carnation Revolution of 25 April 1974

New Portuguese Government

• Announced intentions to grant independence to Angola along with other colonies
• Leaders signed the Alvor Accord on January 15, 1975, stating a transitional government would consist of the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA
• Agostinho Neto was declared President, tasked with leading the country until independence, integration of liberation forces, national elections
• Date was set for independence on Nov 11, 1975
• Three-way power sharing government was formed due to this agreement, however, trust broke down
• The FNLA and UNITA set up a rival government in Huambo

Cold War Site

• The Angolan War of Independence (1961-1974), which involved MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA, led to Angola becoming a Cold War site
• MPLA was kept alive by the support of the USSR
• Anti-communist FNLA had attracted support from the USA and the People’s Republic of China
• UNITA received assistance from the Chinese

Outbreak of Civil War (1975)

• MPLA and FNLA both claimed the right to form the new government
• In Luanda, the MPLA had the most support
• The FNLA was supported by China and links to the CIA
• Jonas Savimbi's UNITA consisted of 1,000 guerrilla fighters
• Links to the Ovimbundu people and their population helped create powerful forces

Alvor Accord

• Leaders of the liberation movements/Portuguese government signed this, introducing a transitional government including each individual in it
• The FNLA, MPLA, and UNITA would work together, however, peace was short lived
• Fighting broke breaking out causing facing a war that was stated to continue 1975 to 2002
• Control of Luanda became a goal, with MPLA successfully driving out all opposing groups from Luanda; forming the government there
• The MPLA gave weapons to supporters and joined around 4000 Katangese soldiers from the Congo

Soviet Presence

• The USSR and Cubans aided the MPLA, supplying military instructors and Russian weapons
• The Soviet Union group controlled all aspects making Americans to be concerned
• FNLA and UNITA began smuggling goods, due primarily concern the US at the time

Kissinger and Concerns Regarding America

• The US Secretary of State was said to make it clear the importance regarding Soviet's ability to impose rule on others
• All surrounding states and there impact helped gain concern

Apartheid (South Africa)

• Apartheid government and the SADF wanted to stop communist's
• The group sent soldiers to fight with UNITA, as well as the FNLA
• South Africa pulled the groups out because there actions, resulting in the SADF supporting UNITA in some capacity
• Eventually the SWAPO was destroyed during an operation in Angola

Cuban's and US Involvement

• Cuba/MPLA's force
• The US gave covert military equipment and funding throughout 1975
• President, Ford needed support from Zaire for assistance

Ronald Reagan's impact

• Reagan made Africa his top priority
• Repealed amendment allowing greater military support
• 1984: Replaced the Clark Amendment
• 1986: Visited Savimbi, to deliver Stinger surface-to-air missiles

US's Recognition

• Clinton's administration extended recognition
• Extended the Angolan government
• It took extended efforts

The USSR's Support

• Was thought that the 1960s would create a 'second revolution' during which Cuba would bring Marxism to Africa
• In the 1960s the MPLA's were receiving from Cuba guerrilla warfare
• 2000-55000 Cuban troops supported against UNITA, with Cuban strength pressuring to reassess southern Africa

China and UNITA

• China agreed to provide most of it's ' armaments
• Providing limited support UNITA
• In early 1970 was supporting and working to balance USSR support, ultimately backing out due China's support for others -In Angola Cuba's military was viewed an act of imperialism

South Africa and the Apartheid

• The SA government had concerns that the MPA's would not have the white minority in mind; a fear 1 Was thought that the government provided safety to anti-apartheid groups 2 SWAPO group and the MPLA 3 They meet to for groups to the American for support
• • SA Troops moved from Southwest Africa in October 1975
• -Led to large scale destruction for economic and human losses

Instability

• Civil Wars
• Pressure lead of civilian and physical and mental abuse
• Destructive habits
• White Portuguese escaping violence
• Large losses in key areas

Refugee Problem

• -- over 4 million people to flee homeland and seek safety
• Economic support was very limited

UNITA human rights violation

• Human Rights Watch estimated that UNITA held nearly 6000 child soldiers during was
• 5k and under age girls
• Created forced marriages

Civilian Danger

• Unexploded Mine lands
• 3rd highest number of land minds
• 70000 Angolans became victims

The Withdrawal

The remaining groups were affected by Portugal's'

• Also give for change for South Africans to change their beliefs

Cuito Cuanavale

• Was marked as turning point in war
• 1986 Both soviet and Americans elevating support of each group
• Saw as key to rollback soviet-backed, non-democratic governments
• The conflict escalated

1. Soviet Union gave extra 1 billion to Africa over time
2. US Aid and Jamba were enhanced in the region

• The USA hoped for better peace throughout south
• --Castro gave a push back against America
• -- The SA government agreed to Crocker terms

Peace Talks

• 1986 March the Truce was proposed
• Cuba sent addition trips and created Cuban troops

Salute

• In 1987 it was said they the UNITA troops were based in cities in Janba