Advanced Anatomy & Physiology: The Endocrine System Chapter 21 Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which communication system reacts quickly but stops quickly?

  • Nervous system (correct)
  • Endocrine system
  • Both systems
  • None of the above

    • Which system's response to long-term stimuli adapts quickly?

  • Nervous system (correct)
  • Endocrine system
  • Both systems
  • None of the above

    • Which system has targeted and specific effects on one organ?

  • Nervous system (correct)
  • Endocrine system
  • Both systems
  • None of the above

    • Which chemical functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter?

    <p>Catecholamines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is shaped like a flattened funnel and regulates homeostasis mechanisms?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pituitary gland arises from an outgrowth of the pharynx?

    <p>Anterior pituitary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Adenohypophysis' is another name for which part of the pituitary gland?

    <p>Anterior pituitary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Growth Hormone' is also known as:

    <p>'Somatotropin'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?

    <p>Exocrine glands secrete products directly into the bloodstream, while endocrine glands secrete products onto an open surface or organ cavity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of hormones in cell communication?

    <p>Hormones are chemical messengers that travel in the bloodstream to stimulate responses in target tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a mechanism of cell communication mentioned in the text?

    <p>Endocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do hormones primarily act in the body?

    <p>In the bloodstream</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are target cells?

    <p>Cells with receptors for a specific hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is responsible for producing hormones like thyroxine and triiodothyronine?

    <p>Thyroid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In paracrine signaling, where are hormones secreted?

    <p>Into the interstitial fluid to affect nearby cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of eicosanoids in cell communication?

    <p>To regulate local cell activities through paracrine signaling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical manifestations are associated with excess thyroid hormone secretion?

    <p>Heat intolerance and increased tissue sensitivity to sympathetic nervous system stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the treatment for hyperparathyroidism due to excess parathyroid hormone secretion?

    <p>Surgery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disorder is characterized by excess cortical secretion, leading to hyperglycemia, hypertension, weakness, and muscle and bone loss?

    <p>Cushing syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the signs and symptoms of hyposecretion of insulin in diabetes mellitus?

    <p>Hypoglycemia, polyuria, polydipsia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the major risk factors associated with Type II diabetes mellitus?

    <p>Obesity, age (40+), insulin resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the chronic pathology associated with chronic hyperglycemia in diabetes mellitus?

    <p>Peripheral neuropathy and cardiovascular damage from atherosclerosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition can be caused by excess insulin injection or pancreatic islet tumor?

    <p>Hypoglycemia, weakness, and hunger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What side effects are associated with hyperinsulinism?

    <p>Anxiety, sweating, and increased heart rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell type in the pancreas secretes glucagon?

    <p>Alpha (a) cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of insulin secreted by the pancreas?

    <p>Stimulates nutrient storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When are hyperglycemic hormones like cortisol secreted?

    <p>To raise blood glucose levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of somatostatin secreted by the pancreas?

    <p>Inhibit insulin and glucagon secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ releases atrial natriuretic peptide in response to an increase in blood pressure?

    <p>Heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of erythropoietin produced by the kidneys?

    <p>Stimulate bone marrow to produce red blood cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are steroid hormones synthesized?

    <p>Functional groups attached to a 4-ringed steroid backbone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are hormone receptors typically located?

    <p>Plasma membrane, mitochondria, and other organelles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hormones need to bind to cell-surface receptors for their action?

    <p>Hydrophilic hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do hydrophilic hormones typically exert their effects?

    <p>By using cAMP as a second messenger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of Na+-K+ ATPase in response to thyroid hormone binding?

    <p>Increasing the rate of aerobic respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is NOT typically influenced by hydrophilic hormones?

    <p>Mitochondrial respiration rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of cAMP in the mode of action of hydrophilic hormones?

    <p>Promoting enzyme activation through kinases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does insulin formation start with preproinsulin being converted to proinsulin?

    <p>RER</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is synthesized from tryptophan instead of tyrosine?

    <p>Melatonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mineral is required for the synthesis of thyroid hormone?

    <p>Iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein hormones are transported in the bloodstream as free, unbound forms?

    <p>Peptides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of T4 (thyroxine)?

    <p>Two DITs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone stimulates follicular cells to release T3 and T4 from thyroglobulin into the plasma?

    <p>Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of Ca++ influx and increased K+ efflux in beta 1 receptor activation?

    <p>Inhibitory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is inhibited by beta 2 receptor activation leading to smooth muscle relaxation?

    <p>MLCK</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of long-term high levels of insulin on target cells?

    <p>Down-regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hormone interaction involves one hormone enhancing the response to a second hormone?

    <p>Permissive effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of hormones, what does 'MCR' stand for?

    <p>Metabolic Clearance Rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system describes the way the body reacts to stress and occurs in stages like alarm reaction and stage of resistance?

    <p>General Adaptation Syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system is responsible for general, widespread effects on many organs?

    <p>Endocrine system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the speed of response of the endocrine system compared to the nervous system?

    <p>Nervous system is quicker</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chemical can function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone)?

    <p>Regulates response to stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone stimulates the production of Testosterone in males?

    <p>FSH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is oxytocin primarily responsible for in females?

    <p>Stimulating milk synthesis after delivery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is suspended from the hypothalamus by a stalk and housed in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone?

    <p>Pituitary gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do hydrophobic hormones like estrogen and aldosterone bind?

    <p>Cytoplasmic receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cAMP in the mode of action of hydrophilic hormones like epinephrine?

    <p>Activates adenylate cyclase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organelle's function is directly affected by the binding of Thyroid Hormone (TH) to its receptors?

    <p>Ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein is activated by G(s) protein in the signaling pathway of hydrophilic hormones through cAMP as a second messenger?

    <p>Protein Kinase A (PKA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Hydrophilic Hormones' mode of action, which process is NOT typically influenced by the activation of enzymes through second messengers?

    <p>Cell division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein plays a critical role in smooth muscle contraction in the G-coupled protein signaling pathway?

    <p>Protein Kinase C (PKC)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is responsible for sodium and water retention in the initial response stage of stress?

    <p>Aldosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What long-term effect is associated with the stage of resistance during stress?

    <p>Depressed immune function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chemical messenger diffuses from the adrenal medulla to the cortex?

    <p>Catecholamines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of prostacyclin in the body?

    <p>Inhibits blood clotting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition results from excessive hormone release, such as toxic goiter in Graves disease?

    <p>Hypersecretion disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What disorder results from antibodies that mimic the effect of TSH on the thyroid gland?

    <p>Toxic goiter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical manifestation is associated with congenital hypothyroidism in infants?

    <p>Low temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Thyrotoxicosis' is a condition resulting from increased levels of which hormone?

    <p>Thyroxine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a long-term effect associated with stress that leads to protein breakdown and muscle wasting?

    <p>Hypokalemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of somatotropin secreted by the anterior pituitary?

    <p>Promotes tissue growth through cellular differentiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for the glucose sparing effect in the body?

    <p>Somatotropin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of oxytocin in the body?

    <p>Causing uterine contractions and milk ejection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland produces serotonin during the day and converts it to melatonin at night?

    <p>Pineal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is produced by the thymus gland to regulate T-lymphocyte activation?

    <p>Thymosin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is calcitonin produced in the body to regulate blood calcium levels?

    <p>Thyroid gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of cortisol produced by the adrenal cortex?

    <p>Stimulates fat and protein catabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for increasing alertness, anxiety, and fear in response to stress?

    <p>Adrenaline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of mineralocorticoids produced by the adrenal cortex?

    <p>Promoting sodium retention and water reabsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of epinephrine and norepinephrine released by the adrenal medulla during stress?

    <p>Increasing blood sugar levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the nervous and endocrine systems in terms of communication?

    <p>The nervous system reacts quickly but stops quickly, while the endocrine system reacts slowly but the effects may continue for weeks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following systems has a response area that is general and has widespread effects on many organs?

    <p>Endocrine system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone acts to regulate the body's response to stress and stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce corticosteroids?

    <p>Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone stimulates the growth of the thyroid and secretion of thyroid hormones?

    <p>Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is suspended from the hypothalamus by a stalk and housed in sella turcica of sphenoid bone?

    <p>Pituitary Gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone regulates milk synthesis after delivery in females and LH sensitivity in males?

    <p>Prolactin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key function of oxytocin in the body?

    <p>Stimulates milk ejection in lactating females</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism describes the way endocrine glands interact?

    <p>Axis control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hormones target other endocrine glands?

    <p>Tropic hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of LH in males?

    <p>Stimulates testes to secrete testosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the pituitary gland arises from an outgrowth of the pharynx?

    <p>Anterior lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the general adaptation syndrome and how many stages does it occur in?

    <p>A syndrome describing the body's reaction to stress; 2 stages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone interaction involves one hormone enhancing the response to a second hormone?

    <p>Permissive effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does activation of beta 1 receptor have on Ca++ influx and K+ efflux?

    <p>Excitatory due to increased Ca++ influx and K+ efflux</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main effect of long-term high insulin levels on target cells?

    <p>Down-regulation of cell sensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is involved in hormone clearance by degrading hormones and then excreting them?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the metabolic clearance rate (MCR) of hormones refer to?

    <p>Rate at which hormones are cleared from plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do hydrophobic hormones like estrogen and aldosterone bind?

    <p>Cytoplasmic receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of TH binding to receptors on ribosomes and chromatin?

    <p>Augmented protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organelle is affected when hydrophilic hormones activate kinases through second messenger systems?

    <p>Endoplasmic reticulum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of hydrophilic hormones, what is the role of cAMP as a second messenger?

    <p>Activates kinases to initiate metabolic reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direct result of G(s) protein activation by hydrophilic hormones?

    <p>Elevation in enzyme activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main outcome of smooth muscle contraction due to Gq protein activation by alpha 1 receptors?

    <p>Phosphorylation of myosin leading to muscle contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a long-term effect associated with stress that leads to protein breakdown and muscle wasting?

    <p>Depressed immune function and susceptibility to infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which endocrine disorder is characterized by inadequate hormone release due to head trauma or a lesion affecting the pituitary gland?

    <p>Diabetes insipidus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of prostacyclin in the body?

    <p>Inhibits blood clotting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition results from antibodies that mimic the effect of TSH and leads to excessive thyroid hormone production?

    <p>Toxic goiter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does hypersecretion refer to in the context of endocrine disorders?

    <p>Excessive hormone release</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect do eicosanoids have on blood clotting and vasoconstriction?

    <p>Stimulate vasoconstriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for sodium and water retention in the initial response stage of stress?

    <p>Aldosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What clinical manifestation is associated with congenital hypothyroidism in infants?

    <p>Growth retardation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is produced by the thymus gland to regulate T-lymphocyte activation?

    <p>Thymosin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of T4 (thyroxine)?

    <p>Four iodine atoms and two tyrosine molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chemical messenger diffuses from the adrenal medulla to the cortex?

    <p>Epinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland produces serotonin during the day and converts it to melatonin at night?

    <p>Pineal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of prostacyclin in the body?

    <p>Regulate blood clotting, vasodilation, and inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is shaped like a flattened funnel and regulates homeostasis mechanisms?

    <p>Adrenal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a long-term effect associated with stress that leads to protein breakdown and muscle wasting?

    <p>Muscle wasting and protein breakdown</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which endocrine disorder is characterized by inadequate hormone release due to head trauma or a lesion affecting the pituitary gland?

    <p>Pituitary insufficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hormone interaction involves one hormone enhancing the response to a second hormone?

    <p>Synergistic effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Communication Systems

    • Two communication systems: Nervous System and Endocrine System
      • Nervous System: electrical and chemical signals, reacts quickly (1-10 msec), stops quickly
      • Endocrine System: only chemical signals, reacts slowly (seconds to days), effects may continue for weeks

    Endocrine System Overview

    • Produces and secretes hormones into bloodstream
    • Hormones: chemical messengers that stimulate response in another tissue or organ
    • Target cells: have receptors for hormones
    • Endocrine glands: produce hormones (e.g., thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads)

    Pituitary Gland

    • Located at base of brain, suspended from hypothalamus
    • Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis): arises from hypophyseal pouch
    • Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis): arises from brain
    • Regulates homeostasis and some endocrine functions

    Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal Portal System

    • Connection between hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
    • Allows for communication and regulation of hormone secretion

    Control of Pituitary

    • Anterior pituitary controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus
    • Posterior pituitary controlled by neuroendocrine reflexes (hormone release in response to nervous system signals)

    Pituitary Hormones

    • Tropic hormones: stimulate other endocrine glands (e.g., FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH)
    • PRL: stimulates milk synthesis and secretion
    • GH: regulates growth and development

    Endocrine Disorders

    • Hypoparathyroidism: surgical excision, fatal tetany
    • Hyperparathyroidism: excess PTH secretion, tumor in gland, soft bones, kidney stones
    • Cushing's syndrome: excess cortisol secretion, hyperglycemia, hypertension, muscle and bone loss
    • Diabetes mellitus: insulin deficiency or resistance, polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia

    Pancreas

    • Both exocrine and endocrine functions
    • Islets of Langerhans: produce hormones (insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide)
    • Insulin: lowers blood glucose, promotes glycogenesis and lipogenesis
    • Glucagon: raises blood glucose, stimulates glycogenolysis and fat catabolism

    Endocrine Functions of Other Organs

    • Heart: atrial natriuretic peptide
    • Skin: helps produce vitamin D3
    • Liver: regulates glucose and lipid metabolism, produces IGF-I
    • Kidneys: produces erythropoietin, regulates electrolyte balance
    • Placenta: produces estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones during pregnancy### Hormone Formation and Synthesis
    • Insulin formation: preproinsulin is converted to proinsulin in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, then split into insulin and C peptide in the Golgi complex
    • Thyroid hormone synthesis: thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) are synthesized from tyrosine and iodine in the follicular cells of the thyroid gland

    Thyroid Hormone Synthesis

    • T3 and T4 synthesis: thyroglobulin is synthesized and stored in the lumen, where tyrosine and iodine combine to form T3 and T4
    • TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) stimulates the release of T3 and T4 from thyroglobulin into the plasma

    Hormone Transport

    • Hydrophilic hormones (monoamines and peptides): transported in the bloodstream as free, unbound water-soluble molecules
    • Hydrophobic hormones (steroids and thyroid hormones): must bind to transport proteins for transport, which prolongs their half-life and protects them from enzymes and kidney filtration

    Communication by the Nervous and Endocrine Systems

    • Nervous system: responds quickly (1-10 msec), stops quickly, and has a targeted and specific effect
    • Endocrine system: responds slowly (seconds to days), effects persist for weeks, and has a general, widespread effect

    Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

    • Hypothalamus: regulates homeostasis mechanisms and some endocrine functions, shaped like a flattened funnel
    • Pituitary gland: suspended from the hypothalamus, consists of anterior and posterior lobes, and regulates various endocrine functions

    Control of Pituitary: Hypothalamic and Cerebral Control

    • Anterior lobe control: releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus
    • Posterior lobe control: neuroendocrine reflexes, hormone release in response to nervous system signals

    Pituitary Hormones

    • Anterior pituitary hormones: tropic hormones that target other endocrine glands, including FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH, PRL, and GH
    • Posterior pituitary hormones: ADH and oxytocin, produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary

    Adrenal Gland

    • Adrenal cortex: produces corticosteroids, including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones
    • Adrenal medulla: produces catecholamines, including epinephrine and norepinephrine, in response to sympathetic stimulation

    Stress and Adaptation

    • General adaptation syndrome: the body's response to stress, occurring in three stages (alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion)
    • Alarm reaction: initial response to stress, characterized by increased epinephrine and norepinephrine levels
    • Stage of resistance: adaptation to stress, characterized by increased ACTH and cortisol levels
    • Stage of exhaustion: prolonged stress, characterized by depleted energy reserves and protein breakdown

    Hormone Interactions

    • Synergistic effects: hormones interact to produce a greater effect
    • Permissive effects: one hormone enhances the response to another hormone
    • Antagonistic effects: hormones interact to produce opposing effects### Endocrine System Overview
    • The endocrine system is a network of glands and organs that produce hormones that regulate various bodily functions.
    • It includes the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads.

    Cell Communication

    • Cell communication involves the exchange of information between cells through various mechanisms, including:
      • Gap junctions: pores in cell membranes that allow signaling chemicals to move between cells.
      • Neurotransmitters: chemicals released by neurons that travel across gaps to affect target cells.
      • Hormones: chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream to reach target cells.
      • Paracrine signaling: local signaling between cells that are in close proximity.

    Endocrine System Components

    • Endocrine glands:
      • Produce hormones that are secreted into the bloodstream.
      • Include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads.
    • Hormones:
      • Chemical messengers that stimulate responses in target cells.
      • Examples: insulin, growth hormone, thyroid hormone, epinephrine.
    • Target cells:
      • Have receptors for specific hormones.
      • Respond to hormone signals by altering their metabolism or function.

    Exocrine vs. Endocrine Glands

    • Exocrine glands:
      • Secrete products through ducts onto an open surface or organ cavity.
      • Examples: salivary glands, sweat glands, pancreas (exocrine function).
    • Endocrine glands:
      • Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.
      • Examples: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands.

    Growth Hormone

    • Produced by the anterior pituitary gland.
    • Stimulates tissue growth and cell differentiation.
    • Regulates metabolism, particularly in childhood and adolescence.

    Posterior Pituitary Hormones

    • Produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland.
    • Examples: antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin.

    Pineal Gland

    • Produces melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles.
    • Peak secretion occurs in childhood and decreases by puberty.

    Thyroid Gland

    • Produces thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) that regulate metabolic rate.
    • Thyroid hormones:
      • Increase oxygen consumption and heat production.
      • Stimulate heart rate and contraction strength.
      • Promote breakdown of CHO, lipids, and proteins.

    Parathyroid Glands

    • Produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates calcium levels.
    • PTH:
      • Increases calcium absorption from the gut.
      • Stimulates bone resorption.
      • Increases vitamin D production.

    Adrenal Gland

    • Produces corticosteroids, catecholamines, and androgens.
    • Corticosteroids:
      • Regulate electrolyte balance and blood pressure.
      • Stimulate fat and protein catabolism.
    • Catecholamines:
      • Increase alertness, anxiety, and fear responses.
      • Stimulate glycogenolysis and lipolysis.

    Pancreas

    • Produces insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide.
    • Insulin:
      • Lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating glucose uptake and storage.
      • Promotes glycogenesis and lipogenesis.
    • Glucagon:
      • Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
      • Inhibits insulin secretion.

    Hormone Synthesis

    • Steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol.
    • Peptide hormones: synthesized through cellular processes involving the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex.

    Stress Response

    • Alarm reaction: initial response to stress, characterized by increased epinephrine and norepinephrine levels, heart rate, and blood pressure.
    • Stage of resistance: prolonged stress response, characterized by increased cortisol levels, gluconeogenesis, and fat and protein breakdown.
    • Stage of exhaustion: severe stress, characterized by depleted energy stores, muscle wasting, and impaired immune function.

    Endocrine Disorders

    • Hyposecretion: inadequate hormone release, leading to disorders such as diabetes insipidus and hypothyroidism.
    • Hypersecretion: excessive hormone release, leading to disorders such as acromegaly and Cushing's syndrome.
    • Autoimmune disorders: Graves' disease (thyroid), Hashimoto's thyroiditis.

    Diabetes Mellitus

    • Type I (insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus): autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells, requiring insulin injections.
    • Type II (non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus): insulin resistance, often associated with obesity and physical inactivity.
    • Symptoms: polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, and hyperglycemia.

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