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Questions and Answers
What is the primary role of insulin?
What is the primary role of insulin?
What is the primary role of glucagon?
What is the primary role of glucagon?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for regulating sodium and potassium balance?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for regulating sodium and potassium balance?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the "fight-or-flight" response?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the "fight-or-flight" response?
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Which hormone is primarily responsible for the body's adaptation to long-term stress?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the body's adaptation to long-term stress?
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Insulin is a catabolic hormone that promotes the breakdown of energy stores.
Insulin is a catabolic hormone that promotes the breakdown of energy stores.
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Glucagon is a catabolic hormone that promotes the breakdown of energy stores.
Glucagon is a catabolic hormone that promotes the breakdown of energy stores.
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What is the name of the main male sex hormone?
What is the name of the main male sex hormone?
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What is the name of the hormone produced by the Leydig cells in the testes?
What is the name of the hormone produced by the Leydig cells in the testes?
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What is the name of the hormone produced by the Sertoli cells in the testes?
What is the name of the hormone produced by the Sertoli cells in the testes?
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What is the name of the hormone that is produced by the anterior pituitary and stimulates the thecal cells to produce androgens?
What is the name of the hormone that is produced by the anterior pituitary and stimulates the thecal cells to produce androgens?
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What is the name of the hormone that is produced by the anterior pituitary and stimulates the Sertoli cells to support spermatogenesis?
What is the name of the hormone that is produced by the anterior pituitary and stimulates the Sertoli cells to support spermatogenesis?
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What is the name of the hormone that is produced by the hypothalamus and stimulates the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH?
What is the name of the hormone that is produced by the hypothalamus and stimulates the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH?
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What is the name of the hormone that is released by the hypothalamus and stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete FSH and LH?
What is the name of the hormone that is released by the hypothalamus and stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete FSH and LH?
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Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for preparing the endometrium for implantation of a fertilized egg?
Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for preparing the endometrium for implantation of a fertilized egg?
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Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for stimulating the growth and maturation of the ovarian follicle?
Which of the following hormones is primarily responsible for stimulating the growth and maturation of the ovarian follicle?
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Which hormone(s) is/are primarily responsible for regulating the menstrual cycle?
Which hormone(s) is/are primarily responsible for regulating the menstrual cycle?
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Which of the following is NOT a key regulator of calcium homeostasis?
Which of the following is NOT a key regulator of calcium homeostasis?
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Which hormone(s) is/are primarily responsible for increasing blood calcium levels when they are too low?
Which hormone(s) is/are primarily responsible for increasing blood calcium levels when they are too low?
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Which hormone(s) is/are primarily responsible for decreasing blood calcium levels when they are too high?
Which hormone(s) is/are primarily responsible for decreasing blood calcium levels when they are too high?
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What is the active form of vitamin D called?
What is the active form of vitamin D called?
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What is the name of the syndrome that describes the body's adaptive response to stress?
What is the name of the syndrome that describes the body's adaptive response to stress?
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Which phase of the GAS is characterized by the body's initial response to an acute stressor?
Which phase of the GAS is characterized by the body's initial response to an acute stressor?
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Which phase of the GAS is characterized by the body's adaptation to the stressor?
Which phase of the GAS is characterized by the body's adaptation to the stressor?
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Which phase of the GAS is characterized by the body's inability to cope with the stressor and potential breakdown?
Which phase of the GAS is characterized by the body's inability to cope with the stressor and potential breakdown?
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What is the name of the precursor hormone that is converted to testosterone and estrogen in peripheral tissues?
What is the name of the precursor hormone that is converted to testosterone and estrogen in peripheral tissues?
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What is the active form of Vitamin D?
What is the active form of Vitamin D?
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What are the three main types of cells found in the testes?
What are the three main types of cells found in the testes?
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What is the name of the process by which the body breaks down fat?
What is the name of the process by which the body breaks down fat?
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What is the name of the process by which the body synthesizes new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources?
What is the name of the process by which the body synthesizes new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources?
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What are the four primary functions of testosterone?
What are the four primary functions of testosterone?
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What is the name of the structure that contains a developing oocyte?
What is the name of the structure that contains a developing oocyte?
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What are the two main types of cells involved in the development of an ovarian follicle?
What are the two main types of cells involved in the development of an ovarian follicle?
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The ______ is the primary stimulus for glucagon release.
The ______ is the primary stimulus for glucagon release.
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The sympathetic nervous system ______ the release of insulin.
The sympathetic nervous system ______ the release of insulin.
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During the ______ phase of the menstrual cycle, the ruptured follicle becomes the corpus luteum.
During the ______ phase of the menstrual cycle, the ruptured follicle becomes the corpus luteum.
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The ______ is the most abundant adrenal androgen.
The ______ is the most abundant adrenal androgen.
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Study Notes
Adrenal Glands - Medulla & Catecholamines
- Catecholamines are produced:
- Epinephrine (Adrenaline): 80%
- Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline): 20%
- Dopamine: A precursor to norepinephrine, but in smaller amounts.
Functions of Catecholamines
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Fight-or-Flight Response:
- Epinephrine: Increases heart rate, dilates airways, increases blood flow to muscles, raises blood glucose levels.
- Norepinephrine: Primarily increases vasoconstriction (narrowing blood vessels), raising blood pressure.
-
Metabolic Effects:
- Stimulates glycogen breakdown in the liver (glycogenolysis).
- Increases lipolysis (fat breakdown).
- Promotes increased glucose release for energy.
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Central Nervous System Effects:
- Increase alertness, arousal, and focus.
- Enhances memory formation in response to stress.
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Cardiovascular Effects:
- Epinephrine: Increases heart rate and force of contraction.
Stimuli for Release of Catecholamines
- Stress (physical or emotional, acute or chronic)
- Exercise
- Hypoglycemia (Low blood glucose)
- Hypoxia (Low oxygen)
- Pain (Acute)
- Fear/Anxiety
Inhibitors of Catecholamine Release
- Parasympathetic Nervous System Activity: Counteracts the fight-or-flight response, reducing catecholamine secretion.
- High Cortisol Levels: Chronic high cortisol may dampen acute catecholamine release.
- Negative Feedback: High levels of catecholamines reduce further release through negative feedback mechanisms.
- Beta-Blockers: Medications that block catecholamine receptors, reducing their effects.
Adrenal Cortex
- Produces steroid hormones crucial for metabolism, immune function, and salt balance.
- Divided into three zones: Zona Glomerulosa, Zona Fasciculata, Zona Reticularis.
Zona Glomerulosa
- Hormones Produced: Aldosterone (mineralocorticoid).
- Function: Regulates sodium and potassium balance. Increases sodium reabsorption in kidneys, leading to water retention and increased blood volume. Promotes potassium and hydrogen ion excretion by kidneys, maintaining electrolyte balance.
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Stimuli: Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS):
- Low blood pressure or low sodium levels stimulate the kidney to release renin.
- Renin converts angiotensinogen, to angiotensin I. To angiotensin II in the lungs.
- Angiotensin II stimulates the zona glomerulosa to release aldosterone.
- High potassium levels (hyperkalemia) stimulate aldosterone secretion.
- Inhibitors: Low potassium levels (hypokalemia) inhibit aldosterone release. Increased blood pressure or adequate blood volume (via negative feedback from RAAS).
Zona Fasciculata
- Hormones Produced: Cortisol (glucocorticoid).
- Function: Regulates metabolism (carbohydrate, protein, and fat). Stimulates gluconeogenesis, increases blood glucose levels, antiinflammatory, and a role in body adaptation to stress.
- Stimuli: ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) from the anterior pituitary, stress (physical, emotional, metabolic). Circadian rhythm, peaking in morning, decreasing at night.
- Inhibitors: Negative feedback, high cortisol levels inhibit ACTH release via feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary, increased blood glucose can suppress cortisol secretion.
Zona Reticularis
- Hormones Produced: Androgens (DHEA and androstenedione - weak male sex hormones).
- Function: Development of secondary sexual characteristics, especially in females, precursor to sex hormones like testosterone and estrogen.
- Stimuli: ACTH, stress. Increased ACTH during stress leads to more androgen production.
- Inhibitors: Negative feedback from high cortisol levels, estrogen/testosterone feedback (in both men and women). Suppresses ACTH release, decreasing androgen production.
Insulin Overview
- Produced by beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
- Primary Role: Regulates blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake and storage.
Insulin Functions
- Lowers Blood Glucose Levels: Promotes glucose uptake by cells, stimulates glucose storage (glycogen) In liver/muscle, inhibits gluconeogenesis.
- Promotes Fat Storage: Stimulates lipogenesis (fat synthesis) and inhibits lipolysis (fat breakdown).
- Promotes Protein Synthesis: Stimulates amino acid uptake into cells and enhances protein synthesis.
- Regulates Metabolism: Facilitates nutrient storage (glucose, fats, proteins) during the fed state, counteracts glucagon, cortisol, and epinephrine.
Stimuli for Insulin Release
- High Blood Glucose (Hyperglycemia): The primary stimulus, after meals glucose levels rise.
- Amino Acids: Elevated amino acid levels (especially after protein-rich meals) stimulate insulin secretion.
Inhibitors of Insulin Release
- Low Blood Glucose (Hypoglycemia): Low blood sugar inhibits further lowering of glucose levels.
- Sympathetic Nervous System: Stress, exercise and fight or flight stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, inhibiting insulin release.
- Somatostatin: Released by delta cells in the pancreas, inhibits both insulin and glucagon secretion.
- High Cortisol Levels: Cortisol can indirectly inhibit insulin release or reduce its effectiveness (insulin resistance).
- Fasting: During fasting states, insulin secretion is low to promote use of stored energy.
Glucagon Overview
- Produced by alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
- Primary role: Raises blood glucose levels by promoting the release of glucose from storage sites in the body.
Glucagon Functions
- Increases Blood Glucose Levels: Stimulates glycogenolysis, breaking down glycogen to raise blood sugar.
- Also stimulates gluconeogenesis, producing new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
Stimuli for Glucagon Release
- Low Blood Glucose (Hypoglycemia): The primary stimulus for glucagon release.
- High Amino Acid Levels: Elevated amino acid levels stimulate glucagon release. Helps in conversion of amino acids into glucose (gluconeogenesis).
- Exercise: Body requires more energy, leading to increased glucose availability.
Inhibitors of Glucagon Release
- High Blood Glucose (Hyperglycemia): Sufficient glucose levels inhibit further glucagon release.
- Insulin: Insulin secreted by beta cells inhibits glucagon release.
- Somatostatin: Released by delta cells; inhibits glucagon & insulin secretion to stabilize blood glucose levels.
- High Fatty Acid Levels: Sufficient energy from fats reduce glucagon release. Also, inhibits glucagon release.
Other Topics (from the provided text)
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Incretin Hormones: GLP-1 & GIP are secreted by the gut in response to food intake, enhancing insulin release.
-
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Increases insulin secretion during the feeding state.
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Physiological Effects of Insulin & Glucagon: Include glucose regulation, fat metabolism, and protein metabolism. These effects demonstrate their regulatory roles in maintaining homeostasis.
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Diabetes Mellitus: Overview, Type 1 Diabetes, Type 2 Diabetes. Physiological effects in each type, focusing on hyperglycemia, ketosis, and ketoacidosis.
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Note: The provided text spans multiple pages of endocrinology information; these points summarize the concepts.
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Description
Explore the crucial functions of catecholamines produced by the adrenal glands, including epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. This quiz focuses on their roles in the fight-or-flight response, metabolic effects, and impacts on the central nervous system and cardiovascular health.
