Acute Renal Failure and Fibrocystic Changes Quiz

Endocrine System

• Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate cell communication, metabolism, growth, and development.
• Paracrine hormones target nearby cells, while autocrine hormones target the cells that secreted them.
• Major hormone types include peptides (amino acid chains), steroids (derived from lipids, often affecting reproduction), and amines (derived from amino acids).
• Hormone receptors are specific to each hormone (only cells with the corresponding receptor can respond).
• Hormone receptors can increase (up-regulation) or reduce (down-regulation) in number, thereby affecting hormone sensitivity.
• Hormones are degraded by enzymes at receptor sites, cellular uptake, or liver excretion.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary System

• The pituitary gland has two regions: the posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary.
• The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones made in the hypothalamus.
• The anterior pituitary makes and releases hormones affecting other glands.
• Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis regulate important functions: growth, reproduction, and metabolism.

Diseases of the Posterior Pituitary

• Diabetes insipidus (DI) is a condition characterized by insufficient ADH (antidiuretic hormone) secretion; leading to excessive urination and thirst.
• Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) secretion involves excessive ADH production, leading to fluid retention.
• ADH (also called vasopressin) controls blood osmolarity.

Diseases of the Anterior Pituitary

• Hypopituitarism is a condition where the anterior pituitary doesn't produce enough hormones, resulting in multiple hormone deficiencies.
• Hyperpituitarism is a condition of excess pituitary hormone production, often due to tumors.
• Specific hormones produced by the anterior pituitary like thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), prolactin (PRL), and growth hormone (GH). Excess or inadequacy of these hormones can cause diseases.

Thyroid Gland Disorders

• The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism, energy, and nervous system function.
• Hypothyroidism is a condition where the thyroid gland doesn't produce enough thyroid hormones, resulting in various symptoms, including fatigue, weight gain, and cold intolerance.
• Hyperthyroidism is a condition where the thyroid gland produces excessive thyroid hormones, resulting in symptoms like weight loss, anxiety, and heat intolerance.

Adrenal Gland Disorders

• Adrenal glands produce hormones involved in stress response, blood pressure regulation, and electrolyte balance.
• Addison's disease, characterized by insufficient adrenal hormone production, causes symptoms including fatigue, low blood pressure, and electrolyte imbalance.
• Cushing's syndrome is associated with excessive cortisol production, manifesting as weight gain, high blood sugar, and muscle weakness.

Renal System

• The kidneys regulate water and electrolyte balance and filter waste products from the blood.
• Urinary tract obstructions can lead to fluid backup, infection, and damage to the kidneys.
• Renal calculi (kidney stones) are hard deposits in the kidney that can cause pain and blockage.
• Renal failure is a condition where the kidneys lose their ability to filter waste, often associated with complications and requiring dialysis or transplantation. -Prerenal is caused by decreased blood flow to the kidneys
  • Intrarenal failure is caused by intrinsic kidney pathology -Postrenal failure is caused by downstream obstruction of the urinary tract.

Urinary Tract Infections

• Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are infections in the urinary system, usually caused by bacteria like E. coli.
• UTIs can affect the bladder (cystitis), ureters, kidneys (pyelonephritis).
• Risk factors include anatomical differences, sexual activity, and instrumentation.

Benign Prostate Hyperplasia (BPH)

• Enlarged prostate gland in older men, associated with urinary symptoms like difficulty urinating and frequent urination.
• Usually not cancerous.

Neurogenic Bladder

• Damage to nerve pathways that control bladder function results in incontinence or retention difficulties.

Renal Tumors

• Benign renal tumors are less common than malignant ones and are often asymptomatic.
• Common malignant tumors include renal cell carcinoma; characterized by specific cell types, risk factors, and clinical presentation.

Bladder Tumors

• Bladder tumors are often related to exposure to environmental carcinogens, particularly smoking.
• Common types include transitional cell carcinomas; often associated with hematuria and diverse clinical presentations depending on stage.

External Genitalia Infections

• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can manifest as various external genital infections, with symptoms like pain, discharge, or ulcerations.

Male Reproductive Disorders

• Cryptorchidism is the failure of one or both testes to descend into the scrotum.
• Testicular torsion is a twisting of the spermatic cord, causing severe pain and potential testicular damage.
• Orchitis is inflammation of the testis.
• Epididymitis is inflammation of the epididymis.
• Varicocele is a varicose vein in the spermatic cord, disrupting blood flow and often causing infertility.
• Hydrocele describes a fluid-filled sac in the scrotum, typically a result of developmental issues.
• Spermatocele is a cyst containing sperm in the epididymis.

Reproductive System Disorders in Women

• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal disorder, often diagnosed in young women, with various clinical manifestations, particularly menstrual irregularities and potential fertility issues.
• Dysfunctional uterine bleeding (DUB) is abnormal uterine bleeding not associated with ovulation.
• Primary amenorrhea is the absence of menstruation by age 15 or beyond normal puberty.
• Secondary amenorrhea is the absence of menstruation in women who previously menstruated regularly.
• Pelvic relaxation disorders like cystocele, rectocele and uterine prolapse lead to displacement of pelvic organs, causing symptomatic issues such as urinary or fecal incontinence.

Benign Breast Disorders

• Galactorrhea is the spontaneous milky or yellowish discharge from the nipple, unrelated to pregnancy or breastfeeding.
• Fibrocystic changes (FCC) – is a common benign condition involving cysts and fibrous tissue within the breast tissue; often associated with pain and tenderness.

Breast Tumors

• Benign breast tumors such as fibroadenomas are more common.
• Malignant breast tumors like adenocarcinomas are potentially life-threatening; if diagnosed early, aggressive treatment can improve outcomes.

Inflammatory or Vascular Disorders of the Skin

• Allergic contact dermatitis results from exposure to allergens causing an immune response that triggers skin inflammation.
• Stasis dermatitis results from venous insufficiency in the lower extremities leading to chronic inflammation and skin changes.
• Scleroderma is an autoimmune disease characterized by widespread fibrosis affecting the skin and other organs.
• Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disorder, presenting with red scaly patches.
• Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disease and also presents with skin manifestations such as rashes.

Burns

• Burns have various classifications (first-degree, second-degree, etc.) based on the depth of skin damage, influencing treatment approaches.
• Burns can result in significant systemic complications, including fluid loss and potentially organ failure, impacting the need for intensive treatment and care.

Infections of the Skin

• Acne vulgaris – infection or blockage of sebaceous glands
• Furuncles/cellulitis – infection of skin hair follicles→ can become widespread
• Impetigo is contagious, occurs most often in children.
• Bacterial skin infections can cause redness, swelling, and pain in the infected area.
• Viral skin infections can include herpes zoster (shingles), chickenpox, wart, etc..
• Fungal skin infections are characterized by various types of tinea(e.g., tinea pedis, tinea corporis) affecting different parts of the body.
• Parasites like scabies or lice cause skin irritation and itching.

Other Skin related issues

• Frost bite – is a skin injury caused by freezing of the skin and underlying tissues -SBRK – common benign skin growth in older individuals, characterized by raised, waxy or scaly patches on the skin. -Actinic/solar keratos- rough scaly patches are caused by sun damage

Skin Cancer

• Skin cancer manifests in various ways, ranging from melanomas (the most serious type) and non-melanomas (basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas).