Actors in International Relations

Actors in international relations are entities that influence global events. They can be states (countries) or non-state actors (organizations, groups, individuals).

States are the primary organizing unit of the international system. They have defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and international recognition.

Non-state actors are organizations, groups, or individuals that operate across national borders and influence international affairs.

Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are created by states for cooperation on shared goals. They establish formal structures and pursue objectives together.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are international actors created by individuals, groups, or corporations.

The influence of non-state actors is increasing, challenging the traditional emphasis on state-centric politics.

The shift from a state-centric view to considering non-state actors highlights their growing role in international relations.

States still dominate interactions within the international system, but they do so within a framework of norms and expectations.

The long-term shift in Earth's weather patterns and average temperatures, with the current temperature rise being faster than any previous period.

The average temperature of the Earth, currently around 15°C, but has been rising rapidly.

The melting of Artic ice at an unprecedented rate as a result of climate change.

The rising of sea levels due to climate change, resulting in coastal flooding.

The increase in extreme weather events, such as storms, droughts, and heat waves, due to climate change.

The direct health impacts of climate change, including temperature-related illness, extreme weather-related health effects, and air pollution-related health effects.

The indirect health impacts of climate change, such as water and food-borne diseases, vector-borne diseases, food and water shortages, and population displacement.

The impacts of climate change on security and society, including exacerbating existing environmental stresses, impacting food security, creating water scarcity, affecting economic stability, and increasing conflict risks.

A legally binding international treaty adopted by 196 parties in 2015 with the goal of keeping global temperature rise below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit increase to 1.5°C.

The specific actions taken by each country to address climate change, focusing on long-term emission reduction strategies.

The idea that states act in self-interest and use force when their security is perceived as threatened, often seen as a driving force behind territorial expansion or aggression.

A strategy where states join forces with a rising power, potentially gaining benefits or avoiding the risks of opposing them.

The challenge faced by states when they must act in their own self-interest, even if it means potentially harming their neighbors and creating a cycle of mistrust.

The belief that states can cooperate and create a more peaceful world through international institutions and shared values. Focuses on collective security and democratic principles.

The idea that the international system lacks a central authority, resulting in self-help and competition among states.

The idea that states act rationally to maximize their power and achieve their goals in a self-serving manner.

A strategy where states form alliances to counterbalance a rising power, preventing it from becoming too powerful.

The idea that cooperation and peace are possible through international institutions, shared values, and economic interdependence.

The idea that the international system is not only based on power but also on shared interests and complex connections, enabling cooperation beyond security issues.

The ability to influence others to get the desired outcome through means other than force, often involving diplomacy, economic leverage, or cultural influence.

The use of military resources and threats to achieve political objectives.

A theoretical framework that focuses on how states, as rational actors, behave in an anarchic international system driven by power politics.

The idea that states should prioritize absolute gains, meaning benefits for themselves, rather than focusing on relative gains over other states.

A theoretical framework that emphasizes the potential for cooperation and peace through international institutions and shared values.

A framework that focuses on the importance of systemic structures and how they shape state behavior in international relations.

Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are established through treaties signed by participating states through negotiation. These organizations are formed to protect the shared interests of the states. Cooperation within IGOs brings benefits to the member states involved in negotiations.

IGOs play a crucial role in setting agendas, establishing rules, and gathering information. They help reduce uncertainty among states and create solutions to international problems.

IGOs can sometimes influence the norms of international relations and the preferences of nation-states. They act as watchdogs, monitoring violations of principles, norms, and international law. For example, the International Atomic Energy Agency monitors the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are institutions established by non-state actors. They are independent of government control and driven by promoting specific causes.

NGOs work on a wide range of issues, such as poverty alleviation, community development, environmental protection, and advocacy. They create and leverage global networks to gather information and raise awareness.

NGOs have a significant impact on international affairs. They can influence government policies, raise public awareness, and increase transparency in international negotiations.

Multi-national corporations (MNCs) are huge firms that own and control manufacturing plants and offices in multiple countries, selling services worldwide. They are major drivers of global economic integration, creating interconnected economies.

Many MNCs are headquartered in the USA, Europe, and Japan. They operate across various industries like agriculture, transportation, banking, and finance.

MNCs are driven by profit maximization. They hold substantial influence on economic policies and can shape the political agenda.

MNCs possess vast financial resources, allowing them to move money, goods, and services across borders. This gives them significant bargaining power with governments.

MNCs often have annual sales exceeding the GDP of many states. Some prominent examples include General Motors, Exxon, General Electric, and Hitachi.

Liberalism sees MNCs as a force for positive change in the world order, as they are viewed as highly efficient producers. They argue that allowing MNCs to invest freely across borders leads to wealth generation and societal transformation.

Realism focuses on the state as the primary actor in international politics, viewing states as unitary entities that act rationally to pursue their national interests, primarily security and power.

Realists argue that the international system is anarchic, meaning there's no central authority to enforce laws or resolve disputes. This leads states to prioritize self-help to ensure their survival.

Realists believe that states primarily seek to maximize their power to protect themselves. This can be achieved through various means, such as war, conquest, or balancing against other powerful states.

Neo-realism, also known as structural realism, focuses on the structure of the international system rather than individual state characteristics.

A theory in international relations focusing on the social construction of reality, emphasizing the role of shared ideas, norms, values, and history in shaping interactions between states.

The view that a state's actions are influenced by their belief systems, which are shaped by historical, cultural, and social contexts, rather than solely material interests.

The idea that states can create their own understanding of anarchy and act accordingly.

The process of ongoing interactions between states, where identities and interests are constantly being shaped and reshaped.

The study of how language and discourse are used to construct meanings related to identities and actions.

A standard for appropriate behavior within a specific social group or identity.

The concept of security that goes beyond the state and includes the safety and well-being of individuals.

Groups or organizations that use violence to achieve their goals, but do not represent a state.

The belief that capitalism inherently leads to stability and equilibrium.

The belief that capitalism is unsustainable in its current form and requires radical change to avoid collapse.

The struggle of the working class (proletariat) against the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) for control of the means of production.

The theory that advanced capitalist/industrialized states are more likely to experience revolution.

The belief that the source of all profit is labor.

The economic and political system based on private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit.

A state's ability to govern itself independently from external interference.

A theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of international institutions (rules, laws, organizations) in fostering cooperation and resolving global issues. It argues that these institutions help to create a more stable and predictable international system.

The idea that international peace and security can be achieved through collective action among states. It involves establishing norms and rules to deter aggression and banding together to respond to threats.

A powerful idea introduced by Woodrow Wilson, who believed in establishing international organizations to regulate international anarchy. He argued that just like peace is enforced domestically, having a system for addressing disputes is essential at the international level.

This theory is based on the idea that class struggle drives the international system, not simply anarchy. Marxists believe that classes are the dominant actors, leading to conflict because of their differing interests and relationships to the means of production.

A core concept for Marxists, it refers to a group of people in society sharing the same relationship to the means of production (i.e., owning or working for) and a shared consciousness of their common interests.

Marx's theory argues that capitalism, through its inherent drive for expansion, will spread globally, leading to a clash between capitalist and non-capitalist societies. This process, for Marxists, is seen as a key driver of imperialism and colonialism.

Capitalism is seen by Marxists as a predatory system that exploits workers and leads to unequal distribution of wealth. They highlight issues like child labor, exploitative working conditions, and the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few as evidence of capitalism's harmful nature.

Marxists argue that governments, through social programs like tax benefits, education, and religious institutions, keep people complacent and accepting of their social and economic status. This is a way for the ruling class to maintain control.

The bourgeoisie, according to Marx, encompasses the owners of the means of production (factories, land, capital). They are the capitalist class that profits from employing the proletariat.

The proletariat, in Marxist theory, is the working class who sell their labor power to the bourgeoisie in exchange for wages. They are exploited by the capitalists because they only receive a fraction of the value they produce.

Marx's theory of historical materialism proposes that history is driven by material conditions, mainly the mode of production and the relationships between classes. He argues that social and political change stems from economic conflicts.

International institutions play a critical role in the Neo-Liberal Institutionalist framework, serving as mechanisms for states to cooperate and address global challenges. They provide information, reduce uncertainty, and help states overcome collective action problems.

Neo-Liberal Institutionalism views states as rational actors who engage in strategic interaction with each other to achieve their goals. They believe that states cooperate, motivated by self-interest and the pursuit of shared benefits.

Non-state actors that use violence to achieve political goals, targeting civilians for psychological impact, and often using fear- generating tactics like bombings, hostage-taking, and hijackings.

The idea that democracies are less likely to go to war with each other due to shared values, economic interdependence, and public restraint.

The argument that democracies share common values, such as respect for human rights and peaceful conflict resolution, which reduce the likelihood of conflict.

The concept that economic ties between democracies discourage warfare, as conflict would negatively impact trade and prosperity.

The idea that democratic publics, being subject to elections and public opinion, are less likely to support wars unless they perceive a direct threat to their security.

The idea that democracies, due to their shared values and institutions, are more likely to form alliances, strengthening their collective security and deterring conflict between them.

The argument that democratic institutions, such as checks and balances and accountability to citizens, make it difficult for democracies to initiate wars hastily.

The idea that democracies develop norms of peaceful conflict resolution through institutions, diplomacy, and shared values, influencing both domestic and foreign policies.

The argument that liberal ideologies, emphasizing individual rights, free markets, and peaceful cooperation, promote peaceful relations between democratic states.

The challenge of defining what constitutes a democracy accurately, as different countries may have varying levels of democratic features and practices.

The concern that a limited number of historical cases and the rarity of wars between democracies may make it difficult to conclusively prove the validity of DPT.

The challenges of understanding the complex motivations and processes behind terrorism, including the factors that lead individuals to radicalize and join terrorist groups.

The use of fear-generating violence by state actors, often targeting their own citizens or political opponents, to suppress dissent, maintain control, or achieve political goals.

Terrorist acts committed within a country's borders without direct foreign involvement, often stemming from domestic grievances or ideologies.

The focus on developing and implementing policies to address the root causes of extremism, preventing individuals from radicalizing, and creating environments that discourage the spread of radical ideologies.

Terrorism that transcends national borders, often targeting international institutions, organizations, or individuals, and creating significant global implications.