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Questions and Answers
What type of eruption occurs beneath glaciers where lava interacts with ice?
Which type of lava is described as cool, thick, and slow-moving with a rough surface?
What is the primary cause of phreatic eruptions?
What term refers to hardened magma found within the vent of an extinct volcano?
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Which volcanic material consists of fragments ejected during an eruption?
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Which process describes magma rising and causing a volcanic eruption?
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What benefit does volcanic activity provide for soil?
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What is the primary composition of stars?
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Which of the following volcanoes is known for having erupted 47 times since 1616?
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What characterizes a dormant volcano?
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Which type of magma is associated with explosive eruptions due to its high viscosity?
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What typical activity suggests a volcano might be preparing to erupt?
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Which type of volcanic eruption is characterized by low-pressure gases and fluid lava flows?
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Which type of eruption is known for violent gas blasts that send ash into the stratosphere?
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What is a common characteristic of basaltic magma?
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Which of the following volcanoes in the Philippines has erupted five times in modern history?
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What distinguishes brown dwarfs from planets and stars?
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Which type of constellation is always visible and moves in a circular path around the North Star?
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Which of the following climates is characterized by having milder temperatures and seasonal changes that are good for agriculture?
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How does latitude affect climate?
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What is the purpose of mountain barriers in relation to climate?
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Which factor contributes to cooler temperatures at higher elevations?
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What typically happens when air masses with different temperatures meet?
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Which ocean current-related phenomenon causes nearby lands to cool?
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Which type of cloud is typically associated with thunderstorms?
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What type of precipitation forms from water vapor turning directly into ice?
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What is the primary cause of acid rain?
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Which weather element is measured in millibars (mb)?
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What phenomenon is characterized by a rotating column of air in contact with both the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud?
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Which of the following is NOT a process of the hydrologic cycle?
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Which gas is considered the most abundant in the atmosphere?
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What is one effect of global warming?
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What process do stars undergo that differentiates them from planets?
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Which of the following spectral types is considered the hottest?
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Why do stars appear to twinkle while planets do not?
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What is a characteristic of Blue Supergiants?
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Which type of stars includes our Sun?
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Where are planets primarily located in the sky?
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Which spectral type is known for having prominent hydrogen lines?
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How do red supergiants differ from blue supergiants?
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Study Notes
Active Volcanoes in the Philippines
- Mayon volcano has erupted 47 times since 1616.
- Taal volcano has erupted more than 30 times since the 16th century.
- Kanlaon volcano has erupted 30 times since 1819.
- Bulusan volcano has erupted 15 times since 1885.
- Hibok-Hibok volcano has erupted five times in modern history.
- Pinatubo volcano erupted in 1991 after 600 years of dormancy.
Dormant Volcanoes
- Dormant volcanoes have not erupted recently, but have records of past eruptions.
- They can become active again after a period of dormancy.
- Example: The lake in the caldera of a dormant volcano at Krafla in Iceland.
Extinct Volcanoes
- Extinct volcanoes have no recorded history of eruption and are not expected to erupt again.
- Examples: Mount Mazama (Crater Lake) and Huascarán in Peru, Mount Buninyong in Australia.
Pre-Eruption Activities
- Increased earthquake activity beneath the volcanic cone.
- Rise in temperature around the cone.
- Melting of ice or snow in the crater.
- Swelling of the cone.
- Steam eruptions and minor ash emissions.
Types of Eruptions
-
Explosive Eruptions:
- Occur when trapped gasses in thick, granitic magma violently explode due to high pressure.
- This type of eruption is highly destructive.
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Quiet Eruptions:
- Involve low-pressure gasses and more fluid, basaltic magma.
- Lava flows are typical of quiet eruptions, which are less violent but still hazardous.
Types of Magma
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Basaltic Magma:
- Contains 45-53% silica, rich in iron, magnesium, and calcium.
- Temperature range: 1000-1200°C.
- Associated with fluid lava flows.
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Andesitic Magma:
- Contains moderate amounts of minerals.
- Temperature range: 800-1000°C.
- Commonly associated with stratovolcanoes.
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Granitic (Rhyolitic) Magma:
- Contains 20% more silica, rich in quartz and potassium.
- Temperature range: 650-800°C.
- Thick magma, leading to explosive eruptions.
Types of Volcanic Eruptions
-
Magmatic Eruptions: Driven by gas decompression within magma:
- Hawaiian: Gentle basaltic lava flows in jets.
- Strombolian: Mildly explosive, with bursts of lava and rocks.
- Vulcanian: Explosive eruptions due to thick magma plugs.
- Plinian: Violent gas blasts that eject ash and pumice into the stratosphere.
- Pelean: Known for pyroclastic flows of incandescent material.
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Phreatomagmatic Eruptions: Caused by interactions between magma and water:
- Surtseyan: Shallow-water eruptions.
- Submarine: Underwater eruptions that form seamounts and islands.
- Subglacial: Eruptions beneath glaciers, where lava interacts with ice.
- Phreatic Eruptions: Steam-driven explosions caused by the heating of groundwater without direct magma involvement.
Volcanic Processes
- Intrusion: Magma rises inside a volcano without reaching the surface, forming underground features.
- Extrusion: Magma rises and causes the volcano to erupt.
Intrusive Volcanic Features:
- Volcanic Necks: Hardened magma within the vent of an extinct volcano.
- Sills: Magma sheets that are parallel to surrounding rock layers.
- Dikes: Vertical magma sheets that cut through rock layers, serving as channels for magma.
Volcanic Materials
-
Lava: Molten rock that solidifies upon cooling.
- Pahoehoe Lava: Hot, thin and fast-flowing with a smooth surface.
- Aa Lava: Cooler, thicker, and slow-moving with a rough surface.
- Pillow Lava: Forms when lava is rapidly cooled by water, creating sack-like segments.
- Tephra: Also known as pyroclastic material, tephra consists of fragments ejected during an eruption, ranging in size from volcanic ash to large volcanic bombs.
- Gasses: Volcanic eruptions release various gasses, including water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and others.
- Lahars (Mudflows): Mixtures of volcanic ash, water, and eroded land, which can be highly destructive as they flow down river valleys at high speeds.
Volcanic Eruption Benefits
- Mineral Deposits: Volcanic activity brings valuable minerals to the surface.
- Soil Fertilization: Volcanic ash enriches the soil, promoting plant growth.
- Geothermal Energy: Heat from volcanic areas can be harnessed to generate electricity and heat buildings.
- Land Formation: Lava flows can create new landmasses, such as islands.
Characteristics of Stars
- Definition: Stars are massive celestial bodies primarily composed of hydrogen and helium. They produce light and heat through nuclear fusion occurring in their cores.
- Distance: Stars, apart from the Sun, are located light-years away from Earth.
Differences Between Stars and Planets
-
Stars:
- Undergo nuclear reactions that burn hydrogen.
- Generally more massive.
- Formed from gas clouds in nebulae collapsing under gravity.
- Twinkle due to atmospheric disturbances.
-
Planets:
- Do not undergo nuclear reactions.
- Typically less massive.
- Formed from materials condensing around a star.
- Do not twinkle; appear larger and closer.
- Always located along the ecliptic plane.
- Move slowly against the background stars.
Spectral Types of Stars
- Stars are categorized into spectral types based on their surface temperature and color. The types are ordered from hottest to coolest:
-
O-type Stars:
- Color: Blue
- Temperature: 25,000–50,000 K
- Characteristics: Extremely luminous, with lines of ionized helium in their spectra.
-
B-type Stars:
- Color: Blue-white
- Temperature: 10,000–25,000 K
- Characteristics: Moderately luminous, showing neutral helium lines.
-
A-type Stars:
- Color: White
- Temperature: 7,400–10,000 K
- Characteristics: Prominent hydrogen lines.
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F-type Stars:
- Color: Yellow-white
- Temperature: 6,000–7,400 K
- Characteristics: Exhibits spectral lines caused by metals.
-
G-type Stars:
- Color: Yellow
- Temperature: 5,000–6,000 K
- Characteristics: Includes our Sun, converts hydrogen to helium.
-
K-type Stars:
- Color: Orange
- Temperature: 3,500–5,000 K
- Characteristics: Cooler, with a range of spectral lines.
-
M-type Stars:
- Color: Orange-red
- Temperature: ~3,000 K
- Characteristics: Prominent titanium oxide lines.
-
O-type Stars:
Supergiant Stars
- Supergiants are among the largest stars in the universe, formed when a star exhausts its hydrogen and begins burning helium.
- They have a short lifespan, often ending in supernova explosions, which can create black holes or neutron stars.
Types of Supergiants
- Blue Supergiants: Very hot and luminous, ending in supernovae.
- Red Supergiants: Large, cool, and luminous; an example is Betelgeuse.
Brown Dwarfs
- Brown dwarfs are substellar objects that are too massive to be planets but not massive enough to sustain hydrogen fusion, thus lying between the category of stars and planets.
Life Cycle of a Star
- Nebula: A cloud of gas and dust.
- Protostar: A collapsing cloud of gas and dust that eventually becomes a star.
- Main Sequence Star: A stable star that is fusing hydrogen into helium.
- Red Giant: A star that is expanding and cooling as it runs out of hydrogen fuel.
- White Dwarf: The remnant of a star that has shed its outer layers.
Constellations
- Constellations are patterns of stars perceived as distinct shapes in the sky.
- They appear to move due to the Earth's rotation.
Types of Constellations
- North Circumpolar Constellations: Always visible and move in a circular path around the North Star.
- Equatorial Constellations: Positioned near the celestial equator.
Zodiacal Constellations and Star Signs
- Aries (The Ram)
- Taurus (The Bull)
- Gemini (The Twins)
- Cancer (The Crab)
- Leo (The Lion)
- Virgo (The Virgin)
- Libra (The Scales)
- Scorpio (The Scorpion)
- Sagittarius (The Archer)
- Capricorn (The Goat)
- Aquarius (The Water Bearer)
- Pisces (The Fish)
Climate and Weather
- Climate: The average weather conditions in a region over a long period.
- Weather: The short-term state of the atmosphere, such as temperature and precipitation, in a specific place.
Climate Zones
- Polar Climate: Short spring, summer, and fall seasons.
- Temperate Climate: Mild temperatures, seasonal changes, and varied precipitation. Good for growing crops.
- Tropical Climate: Warm climate with little seasonal variation.
Factors Affecting Climate
- Latitude: Distance from the equator affects temperature (closer = warmer, farther = cooler).
-
Air Pressure:
- Low pressure: Warm, moist air rises, forming clouds.
- High pressure: Cold, dry air sinks, leading to clear skies.
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Mountain Barriers: The Rain Shadow Effect occurs when mountains block rain, leading to deserts on the leeward side.
- Windward side: Receives moist air and has a cold, wet climate.
- Leeward side: Has little precipitation and a dry climate.
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Elevation: Higher elevations are cooler due to lower air density.
- Temperature drops 3.6°F per 1000 feet increase in altitude.
- Continental Location: Proximity to water stabilizes temperatures (land heats and cools faster than water). Coastal areas have more stable temperatures.
- Ocean Currents: Warm currents bring heat, cold currents cool nearby lands.
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Wind Belts:
- Trade Winds, Westerlies, and Polar Winds are caused by air moving from high to low pressure zones.
Storms
-
Storms: Occur when air masses with different temperatures meet.
- Thunderstorms: An electrical storm characterized by lightning and thunder.
- Tornadoes: A rotating column of air in contact with both the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud.
- Hurricanes: A tropical cyclone with a low-pressure center, strong winds, and heavy rainfall.
Weather Elements
- Temperature: Measured in °C, °F, or Kelvin (K).
-
Wind: Air movement from high to low pressure.
- Day: Sea breeze; Night: Land breeze.
- Coriolis Effect: Earth's rotation causes winds to deflect from their path.
-
Air Pressure: The weight of air above an area; measured in millibars (mb).
- High pressure = fair weather
- Low pressure = stormy weather
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Humidity: Amount of water vapor in the air.
- Absolute: Water content in the air.
- Relative: Current humidity relative to maximum for that temperature.
- Specific: Ratio of water vapor to air content.
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Clouds: Formed by water vapor condensing on tiny particles.
- Cumulonimbus: Thunderstorm clouds
- Cirrus: High, thin, and wispy clouds
- Nimbostratus: Rain clouds
Precipitation
- Types: Rain, snow, sleet, hail, etc.
Hydrologic Cycle
- Water movement through the atmosphere and Earth.
- Includes processes:
- Condensation: Water vapor in the air turns into liquid, forming clouds.
- Deposition: Water vapor changes directly into ice without becoming liquid.
- Percolation: Water flows through soil and rocks under gravity.
- Evaporation: Water changing from liquid to gas.
- Precipitation: Condensed water falling to Earth.
- Sublimation: Solid to gas without passing through liquid.
- Transpiration: Water vapor released from plants.
Natural and Human-Driven Climate Change
-
Acid Rain: Forms when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NO) mix with water vapor.
- Effects include:
- Harm to marine life
- Tree and plant death
- Structural corrosion
- Health problems
- Effects include:
Global Warming
- Causes: Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and water vapor.
- Effects: Rising temperatures, stronger storms, melting polar ice, species extinction, and wildfires.
Vital Signs of the Planet
- Increasing CO2 levels (416 ppm in 2019).
- Global temperature has risen by 2.1°F since 1880.
- Declining Arctic ice and rising sea levels.
Greenhouse Gasses (GHG)
- Water Vapor (H2O): Most abundant in the atmosphere.
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Description
Explore the fascinating world of volcanoes in the Philippines, including active, dormant, and extinct volcanoes. Learn about their eruption history, pre-eruption activities, and examples of notable volcanoes such as Mayon and Taal. Discover how these geological features shape the landscape and environment.
