Aboriginal Beliefs Post-1945

• Study notes for Religion and Belief Systems in Australia post-1945

Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities

• Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming
• The Dreaming is a metatemporal manifestation of Aboriginal religion, encapsulating spiritual and physical dimensions, and giving meaning to all life
• The Dreaming is inextricably connected with the land, as the environment is the physical medium through which it is communicated, since ancestral spirits dwell within.
• The Dreaming is expressed through ceremonies, dance, song, and art

Kinship

• Kinship is a system of relationships, traditionally accepted by a culture, that forms the fabric of Aboriginal society
• Kinship outlines rights and responsibilities within and between clans and is a form of Aboriginal Law, informing education, marriage, and how to raise children
• Kinship identifies the rights, responsibilities, obligations, and complex systems of belonging within a clan, such as education, marriage, and raising children
• Kinship is expressed through skins such as a surname and moiety names, e.g., Indigenous Australians marrying people in the other half of the moiety

Totems

• Totems refer to a sacred animal, object, or symbol that represents an individual and unifies clans under the same ancestral beings
• Each person has four totems which are clan, nation, family, and individual
• The environment determines your totem

Obligations to the Land and People

• Land is the dwelling place for ancestral spirits and a means through which the Dreaming is lived out
• Patrick Dodson said, "Land is the generation point of existence," highlighting the importance of custodianship
• Custodianship is the responsibility to care for and nurture the land, an inextricable connection
• The passing on of knowledge is an important obligation of Aboriginal people
• Ceremonial life refers to rituals that pass on sacred knowledge through Dreaming stories and remind adherents of their rights and responsibilities to the land
• Corroborees (dancing) are an example of ceremonial life and celebrate spirituality and belonging, using body paint to symbolise the connection to kinship, land, and Dreaming

Issues for Aboriginal Spiritualities

Continuing Effect of Dispossession on Aboriginal Spiritualities (Stats)

• Decimated population: 3.8% of population (ABS 2021)
• High homelessness: 20% of the homeless population
• High incarceration rates: 36% of prison population (ABS 2024)
• Low life expectancy: 72 male, 76 female, (ABS 2022) National average 81 male, 84 female
• High unemployment: 12%, 3x national average (ABS 2021)
• Increased drug and alcohol abuse: 5x national average drug-induced mental disorders

Separation from the Land

• Separation from the land led to a loss of spiritual identity and loss of purpose in life
• Terra Nullius 1835 "No one's land" and led to the forced removal of Aboriginals from their ancestral land
• Squatters denied Aborigines access to their hunting grounds, sacred sites etc
• Aborigines were often shot by White Australians for trespassing on " their" property
• As early as 1828, Aborigines were described as 'mere lumps of misery, waiting to give up the ghost' and were decimated by disease and alcohol

Separation from Kinship Groups

• Separation from kinship groups led to loss of human identity, belonging, and language
• Policy of Assimilation (1950s - 1980s) was a homogenising attempt that removed Aboriginal youth from their kinship groups
• The Policy of Assimilation attempted to wipe out “black Australia"
• "Half-caste" Aboriginal children were forcibly removed from their parents and were put into reserves and "white" homes and detained in Christian Missions and Government Reserves
• The Policy of Assimilation resulted in the Stolen Generation

Reconciliation (1990s → Present)

• 1967 referendum gave Aboriginal people the vote and counted them in the census
• The Bringing Them Home Report (1997) involved an acknowledgement of the need for a National Apology
• The implementation of a national 'Sorry Day' occurred
• The Parliament of Australia issued the formal apology to the Stolen Generations in 2008 which was led by Kevin Rudd
• The Closing the Gap Campaign aims to overcome the entrenched inequality faced by Indigenous Australians

Outline the Importance of the Following for the Land Rights Movement

• The land rights movement was a religious-political movement that secures the inherent rights of Aboriginal people to their land to ensure their religious, spiritual, and cultural integrity is preserved

Mabo Case (1992)

• The Mabo Case was a court case that overturned the doctrine of ‘terra nullius' and provided the foundation for the Native Title
• It was the first recognition of any Indigenous land rights

Native Title Act (1993)

• The act is a legal term given by the High Court of Australia to recognise Indigenous Property Rights, allowing them to use and occupy their lands for traditional purposes only

The Wik Decision (1996) / Native Title (Amendment) Act (1998)

• The Wik decision stated that pastoral (farming) leases and native title claims could coexist with each other
• The decision empowered states and territories to legislate their own native title procedures

Analyse the Importance of the Dreaming for the Land Rights Movement

• The Dreaming primarily seeks to secure the land rights of Aboriginal people to ultimately preserve their religious and cultural identity
• Land is inextricably linked to Dreaming, kinship, ceremonial life, and totems
• Making claims to native title establishes the reconnection with the land and identity
• The Dreaming gave Aboriginal people the opportunity to fulfil their totemic responsibilities
• Only 2-4% (traditional Aboriginals) have gained full rights and access to the Dreaming;

Religious Expression in Australia 1945 to the Present

• Christianity is on the decline since 1945

Analyzing religious trends

• Catholicism now major religious tradition -> largely due to changes in Australia's immigration patterns after World War II, and Anglicans are an older aged demographic
• Catholicism became the largest Christian denomination in 1986
• Pentecostal Churches e.g. Hillsong tend to have a younger demographic
• No religion's growth since 1945
• 1971 → new instruction “if no religion write none"
• 1991 → checkboxes of religions and non-religions
• 2016 → the box to select 'no religion' was moved from the last to the first option
• There has been significant growth in Islam and Hinduism

Account for the Present Religious Landscape in Australia

• Christianity is still the largest religious tradition (43.9%) due to Australia's colonisation by Britain and subsequent waves of immigration

• It is the main religion in both people born in Australia and overseas

• Denominational switching has altered the pattern within Christianity and new churches were founded e.g. Hillsong in 1983 = the growth of Pentecostalism

• Christian Immigration from Asian countries contributes to a more multicultural Christianity. Catholics are migrating from the Philippines

• Ecuminism, Christians have moved away from sectarianism which is the excessive attachment to their belief resulting in prejudice to other religions

• 1977 → Uniting Church of Australia formed by 3 Protestant Churches: Congregationalist, Methodist and Presbyterian

• Significant waves of immigration have changed Australia from a predominantly Anglican society to a multifaith society

• The Post-war immigration (1945-1960) saw that European immigration was generally culturally diverse

• Catholic labour workers from Italy, Spain, Malta, and Croatia and Jewish immigration from Europe occurred

• Abolishment of immigration restriction act 1901 (the White Australia Policy) by Gough Whitlam in 1973 resulted in increases in Christian immigration of Catholics from Vietnam and Philippines, Buddists from Vietnam, China, Thailand Hinduism and Sikhism from India, and Muslims from Indonesia

• Global conflict (1980 → present) primarily affects Islamic migration e.g conflict in the Middle East from Syria/Iraq

• Denominational switching

• Orthodox and Catholics are least likely to switch indicating these denominations elicit loyalty

• Main Christian switching is from Anglican/ Uniting to Pentecostalism as seen with the growth of Hillsong and C3

• Pentecostalism has been increasing since the 1980s

• Anglicanism has been decreasing, from 39% in 1947 to 9.8% in 2021

Rise of New Age Religions

• New Age Religions are alternative spiritualities without any central organisation that aim to foster personal happiness, health, and meaning in life
• A range of spiritual beliefs and practices are included that aim to foster individual fulfillment
• New Age Religions emerged in the 1960s and are a "shopping around" phenomenon
• Primarily focuses on searching for personal fulfillment rather than loyalty to a community → Individualism
• New Age Religions embrace ecology / nature-based spirituality e.g. crystal healing and embracing consumerism e.g. buying crystals or buying tarot cards
• New Age Religions embrace aspects of Eastern Philosophies e.g. meditation and yoga from Hinduism and Buddhism
• New Age Religions are decentralised and heterogeneous, often lacking ordained clergy, geographic centre, holy texts, and formal membership
• Growth is largely due to disillusionment with traditional religions, as there is a perception that they are abusive of their power, misogynistic, hierarchical, or have outdated views on social norms e.g. same-sex marriage

Secularism

• Secularism is the belief that religion shouldn't interfere with or be integrated into the public or political affairs of a society
• Secularism's core belief is that human ethics and the universe should be understood without reference to a religion or the supernatural
• Secularists are generally sceptical towards the supernatural, and focus mainly on increased individualism and materialism (similar to New Age Religions)
• Secularists believe that society would be better off not being controlled by religion, as they feel the traditional religions are out of touch on current social issues e.g. homosexuality, women's rights, abortion, premarital sex

Describe the Impact of Christian Ecumenical Movements in Australia

• Ecumenism refers to the mutual understanding and respect between Christian denominations, focusing on unity with a Christocentric nature rather than diversity of practices and beliefs
• Ecumenism's unified voice of Christian Churches address political and social concerns within a secular society
• There is emphasis for interdenominational cooperation towards social justice issues
• The Uniting Church (1977) is one example where three declining Protestant denominations merged together in an ecumenical act (Crusty Meat Pies)
• The Protestant churches that merged were Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian
• Initiatives include: frontier services which helps people in regional and outback areas through comforting them and practical support e.g. bush chaplaincy and UnitingWorld works toward a world “free from poverty and injustice”
• The UCA is the third largest Christian denomination in Australia
• The NSW Ecumenical Council (1984) is a fellowship of Protestant and Orthodox Churches in NSW and the ACT which serves to promote ecumenism, education, and service within the Christian community
• Initiatives include Peace and Justice which combats issues regarding refugees, prayer, the environment, contemporary issues, and the Domestic Violence Project to recognise the signs and support the victims of domestic violence
• The NSW Ecumenical Council addresses the causes of division among some Christian Churches
• The National Council of Churches (NCCA) (1994) consists of 18 member churches of Protestant, Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox denominations
• Initiatives include the international day of peace which celebrates the power of global solidarity for building a peaceful and sustainable world, act for peace which helps poverty/war ridden countries, and the Christmas bowl appeal which encourages donations to empower people to find safety in exile and rebuild their lives

Evaluate the Importance of Interfaith Dialogue in Multifaith Australia

• A multifaith society increases the interactions between religious traditions with historical tensions e.g. 2001 9/11 Attacks, 2002 Bali Bombings
• Interfaith dialogue combats increasing secularism, creates opportunities for peace and adapts the increase in diversity of regions in Australia
• The Jewish Christian Muslim Association of Australia (JCMA) was established in 2003 to prevent abuse caused by religious and cultural intolerance and bigotry
• The JCMA has educational school programs teaching students to reduce racism, intolerance, bigotry and violence
• The Council of Christians and Jews (ACCJ) (1991) works to respect the distinctiveness and integrity of Judaism and Christianity learnt while advocating for tolerance and respect in Australia
• The ACCJ works with Jewish leaders and communities to overcome anti-semitism
• The Affinity Intercultural Foundation (2000) was founded by a group of Australian Muslims who host educational conferences and lectures for people from all cultures and religious backgrounds
• The Foundation seeks to break the racist stereotypes given to Muslim people
• The Foundation converses about current issues and promotes interfaith dialogue and multiculturalism

Examine the relationship between Aboriginal Spiritualities and Religious Traditions in the Process of Reconciliation

• Reconciliation is the long and difficult process of acknowledging and recovering from the destruction of Aboriginal spiritualities and cultures

• Christian reconciliation is when Christian Churches started to recognise their past role in dispossession and their attempt to evangelise & proselytise during the Assimilation period

• The Uniting Church in Australia was the first major religious group to officially apologise for its role in past mistreatment and actively support Indigenous land rights and justice

• The NCCA wants to make indigenous poverty history: “The churches are working together for a fair deal for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, and for the healing of our nation."

• The NCCA also supported the 2008 formal apology by Kevin Rudd and focused on aspects of the ‘Closing the Gap Report' 2019

• Pope John Paul II apologised for the Catholic Church's role during the Stolen Generations in 2001

• Jewish reconciliation strongly supported Reconciliation with empathy because of shared experience of genocide

• In 1998 was organised 'Sea of Hands' at Bondi Beach

• The Jewish community issued a statement to support the 2008 Public Apology Board of Jewish Deputies