Abnormal Psychology Chapter Review

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Questions and Answers

What is the most widely accepted definition of psychological disorders as per DSM-5?

Unexpected functions that are culturally normal and do not cause any distress.

Unexpected functions that are culturally atypical and associated with distress or impairment in functioning. (correct)

Behavioral, psychological, or biological functions that are expected in their cultural context.

Expected functions that are in line with cultural norms and don't cause any distress.

What is the term for the scientific study of psychological disorders?

Psychopathology

Psychiatrists first specialize in psychiatry during medical school.

False

Hippocrates considered the brain to be the seat of _______, consciousness, intelligence, and emotion.

wisdom Signup and view all the answers

According to Hippocrates, the concept of hysteria originated from which ancient civilization?

Egyptians Signup and view all the answers

Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease helped identify the specific bacterial microorganism that causes syphilis.

True Signup and view all the answers

Emil Kraepelin, a founding father of modern psychiatry, was highly influential in advocating the major ideas of the ________ tradition.

biological Signup and view all the answers

Match the brain structure with its function:

Brain stem = Handles essential automatic functions Cerebellum = Controls motor coordination Thalamus and Hypothalamus = Regulate behavior and emotion Limbic System = Located at the base of the forebrain, involved in emotional processing Signup and view all the answers

What concept is associated with individuals inheriting vulnerabilities to certain traits or behaviors activated under stress?

diathesis–stress model Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is chiefly responsible for verbal and other cognitive processes?

Frontal lobe Signup and view all the answers

The limbic system regulates emotional experiences and expressions, and our ability to learn and control our impulses.

True Signup and view all the answers

What structures are included in the limbic system?

hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, amygdala Signup and view all the answers

The cortex contains more than 80% of all neurons in the central nervous system.

cerebral Signup and view all the answers

Match the neurotransmitters with their descriptions:

Glutamate = Excitatory neurotransmitter GABA = Inhibitory neurotransmitter Serotonin = Regulates behavior, moods, and thought processes Dopamine = Implicated in schizophrenia, addiction, depression, ADHD Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the feeling state that accompanies what we say at a given point?

affect Signup and view all the answers

Which components are emotion composed of, according to emotion scientists?

Behavior, physiology, and cognition Signup and view all the answers

Learned helplessness occurs when animals encounter conditions over which they have control.

False Signup and view all the answers

The alarm reaction that activates during potentially life-threatening emergencies is called the ______ response.

fight or flight Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of clinical assessment?

To evaluate psychology, biology, and social factors in individuals with possible psychological disorders Signup and view all the answers

What is epidemiology primarily focused on?

Studying the prevalence of disorders in populations Signup and view all the answers

Placebo effect occurs when behavior changes due to an experimenter's manipulation.

False Signup and view all the answers

Endophenotypes are the genetic mechanisms contributing to the underlying problems causing the symptoms of _______ disorders.

psychological Signup and view all the answers

Match the genetic analysis strategy with its description:

Linkage analysis = Assesses inherited characteristics concurrently with the disorder to identify close genes Association studies = Compares genetic markers between individuals with and without a disorder Genetic linkage analysis = Matches disorder inheritance to genetic marker inheritance on the same chromosome Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of universal prevention strategies?

prevent later problems and promote protective behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What is the sex ratio among common fears with a couple of exceptions?

Overwhelmingly female Signup and view all the answers

What is the median age of onset for specific phobia?

7 years of age Signup and view all the answers

Children usually refuse to go to school because they are afraid of separation from loved ones.

True Signup and view all the answers

The prevalence of Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) in a given 1-year period is ____%.

6.8% Signup and view all the answers

Match the trauma-and stressor-related disorder with its description:

Attachment disorders = Following inadequate or abusive childrearing practices Adjustment disorders = Characterized by persistent anxiety and depression following a stressful life event Posttraumatic stress disorder = Reactions to trauma following exposure to a traumatic event Signup and view all the answers

What are the common characteristics of GAD?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

In most cases of GAD, panic attacks are commonly experienced.

False Signup and view all the answers

What is the median age of onset for GAD according to interviews?

31 Signup and view all the answers

What type of treatment is commonly prescribed for GAD?

Benzodiazepines Signup and view all the answers

What are some cognitive and emotional abnormalities associated with hoarding?

Exaggerated desire for control over possessions Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of panic control treatment (PCT)?

Creating 'mini' panic attacks through physical sensations Signup and view all the answers

What is another term for Hair Pulling Disorder?

Trichotillomania Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary behavior associated with Excoriation?

Skin picking Signup and view all the answers

Both Trichotillomania and Excoriation were previously classified under impulse control disorders.

True Signup and view all the answers

The urge to pull out one's own hair is known as ____________.

trichotillomania Signup and view all the answers

Which neurobiological system is particularly involved in PTSD?

Cortisol secretion Signup and view all the answers

In psychoanalytic therapy, reliving emotional trauma to relieve emotional suffering is known as catharsis.

True Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common strategy used with adolescents or adults to work through the content of a traumatic experience?

Developing a narrative of the traumatic experience that is reviewed extensively in therapy Signup and view all the answers

In Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), obsessions with ______ lead to washing rituals.

contamination Signup and view all the answers

Match the following characteristics with the disorder: Hoarding Disorder

Excessive acquisition of things = A Difficulty discarding anything = B Living with excessive clutter = C Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the alarm reaction that activates during potentially life-threatening emergencies?

Fight or flight response Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of determining whether an individual's problem meets the criteria for a psychological disorder?

Diagnosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the feeling state that accompanies what we say at a given point?

Affect Signup and view all the answers

What is the principle of equifinality used in?

Developmental psychopathology Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of neuroimaging technique that uses multiple X-ray exposures of the brain from different angles?

Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the systematic evaluation and measurement of psychological, biological, and social factors in an individual presenting with a possible psychological disorder?

Clinical assessment Signup and view all the answers

What are the three related components of emotion, according to emotion scientists?

Behavior, physiology, and cognition Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of neuroimaging technique that gives greater resolution than a CT scan without the inherent risks of X-ray tests?

Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is associated with motor coordination and has been linked to autism?

Cerebellum Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the midbrain?

Coordinating movement with sensory input Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is responsible for relaying information between the forebrain and the lower areas of the brain stem?

Thalamus Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the limbic system?

Regulating emotional experiences and expressions Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is named for its approximate shape and is involved in regulating emotional experiences and expressions?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the basal ganglia?

Controlling motor activity Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the cerebral cortex?

Providing us with our distinctly human qualities Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of all neurons in the central nervous system are found in the cerebral cortex?

80% Signup and view all the answers

What was the concept of bloodletting used to treat in ancient medicine?

Mental disorders Signup and view all the answers

In ancient Chinese medicine, what was believed to cause unexplained mental disorders?

Blockages of 'wind' or the presence of 'cold, dark wind' Signup and view all the answers

Who coined the term 'hysteria' to describe a concept learned from the Egyptians?

Hippocrates Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the bacterial microorganism that causes syphilis, identified through Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease?

Treponema pallidum Signup and view all the answers

What was John P. Grey's position on the causes of insanity?

Insanity is caused by physical factors Signup and view all the answers

What was the treatment approach used in ancient China to restore proper flow of 'wind'?

Acupuncture Signup and view all the answers

What was the recommended treatment for depression in Robert Burton's 'Anatomy of Melancholy'?

Eating tobacco and a half-boiled cabbage Signup and view all the answers

What was the concept of 'humors' used to describe in ancient medicine?

The four bodily fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of cognitive therapy in treating PTSD?

To correct negative assumptions about the trauma Signup and view all the answers

Which type of medication has been shown to be helpful for PTSD?

SSRIs Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of adjustment disorders?

The individual is unable to cope with the demands of the situation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of attachment disorders in children?

Inadequate or abusive child-rearing practices Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of reactive attachment disorder?

The child very seldom seeks out a caregiver for protection Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between adjustment disorders and PTSD?

The type of stressor involved Signup and view all the answers

What is the main goal of treatment for PTSD?

To correct negative assumptions about the trauma Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of treatment for adjustment disorders?

Helping the individual cope with the demands of the situation Signup and view all the answers

What is the central feature of Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)?

Psychological preoccupation with somatic issues Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common consequence of BDD?

Suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and suicide Signup and view all the answers

Why is the prevalence of BDD difficult to estimate?

Because it is often kept secret Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of men with BDD?

They tend to focus on body build, genitals, and thinning hair Signup and view all the answers

At what age does BDD typically peak?

Age 16-17 Signup and view all the answers

What is a treatment for BDD that has been shown to be effective?

Drugs that block the re-uptake of serotonin Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between BDD and OCD?

BDD is more closely related to OCD than to other disorders Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of women with BDD?

They tend to focus on more varied body areas Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Abnormal Behavior in Historical Context

Abnormal behavior is a psychological dysfunction within an individual associated with distress or impairment in functioning, and a response that is not typical or culturally expected.
This concept is defined by the DSM-5, which describes behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunctions that are unexpected in their cultural context and associated with present distress and impairment in functioning, or increased risk of suffering, death, pain, or impairment.

Historical Conceptions of Abnormal Behavior

The supernatural tradition: humans believed that agents outside their bodies and environment influence their behavior, thinking, and emotions.
During the Middle Ages, abnormal behavior was seen as the work of the devil and witches, and treatments included exorcism, rituals, and torture.
The biological tradition: Hippocrates and Galen suggested that psychological disorders could be treated like any other disease, and that the brain is the seat of wisdom, consciousness, intelligence, and emotion.
The humoral theory of disorders: Hippocrates believed that normal brain functioning was related to four bodily fluids or humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm.
In ancient China, a similar idea existed, but instead of "humors," they focused on the movement of air or "wind" throughout the body.

The Biological Tradition

Hippocrates also coined the word hysteria to describe a concept he learned about from the Egyptians, which is now known as somatic symptom disorders.
The Roman physician Galen adopted the ideas of Hippocrates and developed them further, creating a powerful and influential school of thought within the biological tradition.
In the 19th century, the biological tradition continued to evolve, with the development of the germ theory of disease and the identification of the specific bacterial microorganism that caused syphilis.
In the 20th century, the biological tradition led to the development of physical interventions such as electric shock and brain surgery.

The Psychological Tradition

The psychological tradition emerged in the 19th century, with a focus on moral therapy, which included treating institutionalized patients as normally as possible in a setting that encouraged and reinforced normal social interaction.
Moral therapy originated with Philippe Pinel and Jean-Baptiste Pussin, and was later introduced in the United States by Benjamin Rush.
The rise of moral therapy in Europe and the United States made asylums habitable and even therapeutic.
Unfortunately, humane treatment declined in the late 19th century due to the convergence of factors, including the growth of asylums and the crusade of Dorothea Dix.

An Integrative Approach to Psychopathology

No influence operates in isolation, and each dimension (biological or psychological) is strongly influenced by the others and by development, and they weave together in various complex and intricate ways to create a psychological disorder.
Examples of integrative approaches include Huntington's disease, a degenerative brain disease caused by a genetic defect, and phenylketonuria (PKU), a disorder caused by the inability of the body to metabolize phenylalanine.
Linkage studies and the diathesis-stress model are also used to understand the interaction between genes and environment in the development of psychological disorders.### Gene-Environment Interaction
The development of a disorder is influenced by a combination of genetic vulnerability and life stress.
The smaller the genetic vulnerability, the greater the life stress required to produce the disorder.
Conversely, with greater genetic vulnerability, less life stress is required.

The Nervous System

The human nervous system consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system.
The peripheral nervous system coordinates with the brain stem to ensure proper body function.
The peripheral nervous system has two major components: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Central Nervous System

The brain stem is the lower, more ancient part of the brain, handling essential automatic functions like breathing, sleeping, and movement.
The forebrain is more advanced and evolved more recently, responsible for higher cognitive functions.
The brain stem consists of the hindbrain, midbrain, and thalamus/hypothalamus.
The hindbrain regulates automatic activities, such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion.
The midbrain coordinates movement with sensory input and contains parts of the reticular activating system.
The thalamus and hypothalamus are involved in regulating behavior and emotion.

Forebrain

The forebrain is divided into the limbic system, basal ganglia, and cerebral cortex.
The limbic system includes structures like the hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, and amygdala, which regulate emotional experiences and expressions.
The basal ganglia are involved in motor control and may be associated with motor activity.
The cerebral cortex is the largest part of the forebrain, containing over 80% of all neurons in the central nervous system.
The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes: temporal, parietal, occipital, and frontal.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

The temporal lobe is associated with recognizing sights and sounds and long-term memory storage.
The parietal lobe is associated with recognizing sensations of touch and monitoring body positioning.
The occipital lobe is associated with integrating and making sense of visual inputs.
The frontal lobe is responsible for higher cognitive functions, such as thinking, reasoning, and planning.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.
Agonists, antagonists, and inverse agonists are used to study neurotransmitter function.
Reuptake is the process by which a neurotransmitter is drawn back into the neuron after transmission.

Amino-Acid Neurotransmitters

Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that stimulates neurons.
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates the transmission of information.
The GABA system is involved in reducing anxiety, anger, and aggression.
Minor tranquilizers, like benzodiazepines, work by increasing GABA's attachment to neuron receptors.

Monoamine Neurotransmitters

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5HT) is involved in regulating behavior, moods, and thought processes.
Low serotonin activity is associated with aggression, impulsivity, and suicide.
Selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are used to treat psychological disorders, such as anxiety, mood, and eating disorders.
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) is involved in regulating behavioral tendencies and is associated with panic and emergency reactions.
Dopamine is involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, addiction, depression, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Dopamine circuits are associated with exploratory, outgoing, and pleasure-seeking behaviors.

Cognitive Science

Cognitive science is concerned with how we acquire, process, and store information.
Cognitive science is involved in the study of memory, learning, and behavioral tendencies.

Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis

Clinical assessment is the systematic evaluation of psychological, biological, and social factors in an individual.
Diagnosis is the process of determining whether an individual's problem meets the criteria for a psychological disorder.
Affect refers to the feeling state that accompanies what we say.
Neuroimaging techniques, such as CT, MRI, PET, SPECT, and fMRI, are used to assess brain structure and functioning.### EEG and ERP
In an electroencephalogram (EEG), electrodes are placed on the scalp to record low-voltage currents
Event-related potential (ERP) is a brief EEG pattern recorded in response to specific events, such as hearing a psychologically meaningful stimulus

Research Strategies

Idiographic strategy: studies unique aspects of an individual's personality, cultural background, or circumstances
Nomothetic strategy: determines a general class of problems to which a presenting problem belongs, and uses classification to group similar problems

Classification and Taxonomy

Classification: assigning objects or people to categories based on shared attributes or relations
Taxonomy: classification of entities for scientific purposes
Nosology: classification of psychological or medical phenomena or disorders
Nomenclature: names or labels of disorders that make up a nosology

History of DSM

First Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-I) published in 1952
DSM-II published in 1968
DSM-III published in 1980, with significant changes:
- Atheoretical approach to diagnosis
- Precise descriptions of disorders for reliability and validity
- Multiaxial system for rating severity and other factors
DSM-IV published in 1994, with changes to the multiaxial system
DSM-IV-TR published in 2000, with updates to research literature and diagnostic criteria
DSM-5 published in 2013, with significant changes:
- Removal of the multiaxial system
- Use of dimensional axes for rating severity and other factors
- Changes to diagnosis and classification of disorders

Comorbidity and Research Methods

Comorbidity: diagnosis of multiple psychological disorders at the same time
Correlational research: studies the relationship between variables without manipulating them
Epidemiology: study of the incidence, distribution, and consequences of a particular problem or set of problems
Placebo effect: behavior change due to expectation of change, rather than actual manipulation
Comparative treatment research: compares different treatments to determine their effectiveness
Single-case experimental design: studies a single case or participant to determine the effectiveness of a treatment

Endophenotypes and Genetic Linkage

Endophenotypes: genetic mechanisms that contribute to underlying problems causing symptoms and difficulties
Genetic linkage analysis: studies the inheritance of disorders and other inherited characteristics to identify specific genes
Association studies: compares genetic markers in people with a disorder to those without the disorder

Prevention Intervention Strategies

Health promotion or positive development strategies: blanket entire populations to prevent problems and promote protective behaviors
Universal prevention strategies: target specific risk factors in entire populations
Selective prevention strategies: target specific groups at risk
Indicated prevention strategies: target individuals showing signs of problems

Anxiety: negative mood state characterized by bodily symptoms of physical tension and apprehension about the future
Fear: immediate emotional reaction to current danger
Panic attack: abrupt experience of intense fear or acute discomfort, accompanied by physical symptoms
Two types of panic attacks: expected and unexpected
Biological contributions: multiple genes, GABA, noradrenergic, serotonergic, and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) systems
Limbic system: mediator between brain stem and cortex, involved in anxiety
Behavioral inhibition system (BIS): brain circuit involved in anxiety
Fight/flight system (FFS): brain circuit involved in panic

Psychological Contributions

Freud: anxiety as a psychic reaction to danger
Behavioral theorists: anxiety as a product of early classical conditioning, modeling, or other forms of learning
Sense of uncontrollability: develops early as a function of upbringing and environmental factors

Stressful life events: trigger biological and psychological vulnerabilities to anxiety
Social and interpersonal factors: marriage, divorce, difficulties at work, death of a loved one, and so on
DSM-5: makes explicit the co-occurrence of panic attacks with certain medical conditions

Historical Perspectives on Mental Illness

In ancient times, bloodletting was a common practice to treat mental disorders, involving the removal of a carefully measured amount of blood from the body, often with leeches.
The concept of "humors" was prevalent in ancient Greece, where unexplained mental disorders were believed to be caused by an imbalance of four fluids (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) in the body.
In ancient China, the focus was on the movement of air or "wind" throughout the body, where blockages of wind or the presence of cold, dark wind (yin) as opposed to warm, life-sustaining wind (yang) were believed to cause mental disorders.
Hippocrates coined the word "hysteria" to describe a concept he learned about from the Egyptians, which is now known as somatic symptom disorders.

Biological Approaches

The cerebellum controls motor coordination, and abnormalities in the cerebellum may be associated with autism.
The midbrain coordinates movement with sensory input and contains parts of the reticular activating system, which contributes to processes of arousal and tension.
The thalamus and hypothalamus are involved in regulating behavior and emotion, functioning as a relay between the forebrain and the remaining lower areas of the brain stem.
The limbic system, located at the base of the forebrain, regulates emotional experiences and expressions, and is involved with basic drives such as sex, aggression, hunger, and thirst.

Clinical Assessment and Diagnosis

Clinical assessment is the systematic evaluation and measurement of psychological, biological, and social factors in an individual presenting with a possible psychological disorder.
Diagnosis is the process of determining whether the particular problem afflicting the individual meets all criteria for a psychological disorder, as set forth in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).
Affect refers to the feeling state that accompanies what we say at a given point.

Neuroimaging Techniques

Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan or CT scan uses multiple X-ray exposures of the brain from different angles to reconstruct pictures of various slices of the brain.
Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a more recently developed procedure that gives greater resolution than a CT scan without the inherent risks of X-ray tests.

Disorders

Adjustment disorders describe anxious or depressive reactions to life stress that are generally milder than one would see in acute stress disorder or PTSD.
Attachment disorders refer to disturbed and developmentally inappropriate behaviors in children, emerging before five years of age, in which the child is unable or unwilling to form normal attachment relationships with caregiving adults.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a perceived flaw in one's appearance, leading to repetitive behaviors such as mirror checking and skin picking.
BDD is more closely related to Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) than somatoform disorders, and is now classified as an obsessive-compulsive and related disorder in DSM-5.
Suicide ideation, attempts, and suicide itself are typical consequences of BDD.

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