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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the midbrain's cerebral peduncles?

  • Convey ascending and descending impulses (correct)
  • Regulate heart rate
  • Control breathing
  • Provide vision and hearing reflexes

Which component is NOT a protective structure of the central nervous system?

  • Meninges
  • Cerebral peduncles (correct)
  • Cerebrospinal fluid
  • Skull

Which part of the brain stem includes centers that control vital functions such as heart rate and blood pressure?

  • Reticular formation
  • Pons
  • Medulla oblongata (correct)
  • Midbrain

What structure connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle in the brain?

<p>Cerebral aqueduct (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the meninges is the outermost protective covering of the brain?

<p>Dura mater (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main composition of the pons?

<p>Fiber tracts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The reticular formation is best described as a:

<p>Diffused mass of gray matter (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which function is primarily associated with the medulla oblongata?

<p>Breathing control (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the somatic sensory area located in the parietal lobe?

<p>Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is NOT part of the diencephalon?

<p>Cerebellum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is responsible for our ability to speak?

<p>Broca’s area (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the thalamus is correct?

<p>It surrounds the third ventricle. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the hypothalamus in the nervous system?

<p>Controls water balance and regulates metabolism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which function is associated with the cerebellum?

<p>Coordinating voluntary movements (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structure is found atop the thalamus?

<p>Epithalamus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the brainstem connect to?

<p>Spinal cord (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of the sodium-potassium pump in a neuron?

<p>To restore the original ion configuration after an action potential (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the rapid and involuntary response to a stimulus?

<p>Reflex (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the depolarization phase of a nerve impulse?

<p>Sodium ions flow inside the membrane (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes gray matter from white matter in the central nervous system?

<p>Gray matter is primarily composed of cell bodies (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the characteristics required for a neuron to conduct another impulse after an action potential?

<p>The membrane needs to be repolarized (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the direct pathway from a sensory neuron to an interneuron to an effector?

<p>Reflex arc (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which phase do potassium ions primarily flow out of the neuron?

<p>Repolarization (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What component outside the central nervous system contains collections of nerve cell bodies?

<p>Ganglia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the reticular activating system?

<p>Affects awake/sleep cycles and consciousness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is cerebrospinal fluid primarily composed of?

<p>Similar to blood plasma with variations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are arachnoid villi?

<p>Projections of arachnoid membrane through dura mater (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes Alzheimer's Disease?

<p>A progressive degenerative brain disease (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when damage occurs to the area related to the reticular activating system?

<p>Permanent coma (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where is cerebrospinal fluid circulated?

<p>In the ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural changes occur in the brain in Alzheimer's Disease?

<p>Abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one function of cerebrospinal fluid?

<p>Forming a cushion to protect the brain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is located below the T12 vertebra?

<p>Cauda equina (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following substances is excluded by the blood-brain barrier?

<p>Alcohol (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the spinal cord primarily contains motor neurons?

<p>Ventral horns (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does damage to the dorsal root ganglion have?

<p>Loss of sensory perception (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the internal gray matter of the spinal cord?

<p>Surrounds the central canal (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is commonly found in the cervical and lumbar enlargements of the spinal cord?

<p>Motor neuron cell bodies (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes traumatic brain injuries?

<p>A concussion may result in brief loss of consciousness. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about spinal nerves is accurate?

<p>They exit the spine at different vertebral levels. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of muscle does the somatic nervous system primarily affect?

<p>Skeletal muscle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is exclusively used by the somatic nervous system?

<p>Acetylcholine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which division of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response?

<p>Sympathetic division (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The parasympathetic division is best associated with which of the following functions?

<p>Conserving energy (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are autonomic nervous system neurons structured in comparison to somatic nervous system neurons?

<p>Somatic has one motor neuron; autonomic has preganglionic and postganglionic nerves (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the acronym 'E' in the sympathetic division stand for?

<p>Emergency response (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a function of the parasympathetic division?

<p>Fight-or-flight response (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is accurate regarding neurotransmitters in the autonomic nervous system?

<p>Acetylcholine, epinephrine, or norepinephrine may be used (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Nuclei

Clusters of nerve cells in the central nervous system (CNS).

Tracts

Bundles of nerve fibers in the central nervous system (CNS).

Gray matter

Part of the CNS containing cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers.

White matter

Part of the CNS containing myelinated fibers.

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Nerves

Bundles of nerve fibers in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

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Ganglia

Collections of nerve cell bodies outside the central nervous system (CNS).

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Action Potential

Nerve impulse; a brief reversal of electrical charge across a nerve cell membrane.

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All-or-None Response

Once a nerve impulse begins, it travels the entire axon without decreasing in strength.

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Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher-level functions like thinking, learning, and memory.

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Somatic Sensory Area

Located in the parietal lobe, receives sensory information from the body (except for special senses).

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Primary Motor Area

Located in the frontal lobe, sends signals to skeletal muscles, controlling voluntary movements.

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Broca's Area

Located at the base of the precentral gyrus, responsible for speech production.

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Diencephalon

Located on top of the brain stem, acts as a relay station for sensory information and controls vital functions.

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Thalamus

The main relay center for sensory information, directing it to the correct part of the brain for processing.

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Hypothalamus

A key player in regulating body temperature, water balance, metabolism, and emotions.

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Cerebellum

Plays a crucial role in coordinating movements, balance, and coordination. It's the 'automatic pilot' for your body.

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What is the brain stem?

The brain stem connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

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What are the parts of the brain stem?

The brain stem consists of three parts: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

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Midbrain function

The midbrain controls eye movement, auditory reflexes, and motor control.

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Pons function

The pons helps regulate breathing, sleep, and facial expressions.

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Medulla Oblongata function

The medulla oblongata controls vital functions like heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.

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Dura mater

The outermost layer of the meninges, a tough protective membrane covering the brain and spinal cord.

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Arachnoid layer

The middle layer of the meninges, a delicate web-like membrane.

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Pia mater

The innermost layer of the meninges, a thin membrane directly attached to the brain.

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Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing.

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Sympathetic Division

The part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares your body for action, often called the 'fight-or-flight' response.

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Parasympathetic Division

The part of the autonomic nervous system that helps calm your body down and conserve energy.

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Somatic Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that controls voluntary movements, such as walking or talking.

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Preganglionic Neuron

A neuron in the autonomic nervous system that carries signals from the central nervous system to a ganglion.

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Postganglionic Neuron

A neuron in the autonomic nervous system that carries signals from a ganglion to an effector organ.

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Effector Organ

A tissue or organ that responds to a signal from the nervous system.

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Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.

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Spinal Cord Anatomy

The spinal cord, extending from the medulla oblongata to the T12 region, is responsible for transmitting nerve signals between the brain and the body. It also controls reflexes and some simple motor actions.

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Cauda Equina

A collection of spinal nerves that extend from the end of the spinal cord, resembling a horse's tail, and provide innervation to the lower limbs and pelvic region.

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Enlargements in the Spinal Cord

The spinal cord has enlargements in the cervical and lumbar regions, housing a greater concentration of motor neurons to innervate the limbs.

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Internal Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord

The inner part of the spinal cord, containing cell bodies of neurons, is responsible for processing sensory information and initiating motor commands.

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Dorsal & Ventral Horns

The internal gray matter is divided into dorsal (posterior) and ventral (anterior) horns. The dorsal horn receives sensory information, while the ventral horn houses motor neurons.

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Ventral Root

Axons from motor neurons in the ventral horn exit the spinal cord via the ventral root, carrying motor commands to muscles.

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Spinal Nerves

Spinal nerves are formed when the dorsal and ventral roots fuse, carrying both sensory and motor information to and from the body.

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Dorsal Root Ganglion

Located on the dorsal root, this ganglion houses the cell bodies of sensory neurons. It's responsible for relaying sensory information from the body to the spinal cord.

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What is the role of the reticular activating system?

The reticular activating system (RAS) is a network of neurons in the brainstem responsible for regulating wakefulness and consciousness. It filters sensory input and activates the cerebral cortex to maintain alertness. It also influences our sleep-wake cycles.

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What happens if there's damage to the reticular activating system?

Damage to the reticular activating system can lead to a permanent coma. This is because the RAS is crucial for keeping the brain alert and responsive to external stimuli. Without it, the brain can't properly wake up and respond.

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What is the subarachnoid space?

The subarachnoid space is a fluid-filled space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater, two membranes that protect the brain and spinal cord. It contains cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions and protects the central nervous system.

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What is cerebrospinal fluid?

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord. It provides cushioning and protection, transports nutrients, and removes waste products.

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What is the choroid plexus?

The choroid plexus is a specialized tissue within the ventricles of the brain. It filters blood to produce cerebrospinal fluid.

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Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's is a progressive brain disease that causes memory loss, thinking difficulties, and behavioral changes. It's characterized by abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons, gradually destroying brain cells.

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What are the structural changes in the brain during Alzheimer's disease?

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by structural changes in the brain, including amyloid plaques (clumps of protein) and neurofibrillary tangles (twisted fibers within neurons). These abnormalities cause brain cell death and disrupt communication pathways.

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What are the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease?

Alzheimer's disease leads to a gradual decline in cognitive function. It's characterized by memory loss, confusion, difficulty with language, and changes in personality and behavior. As the disease progresses, individuals may experience hallucinations and ultimately, death.

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Study Notes

Nervous System Overview

  • The nervous system monitors changes inside and outside the body (stimuli).
  • It processes and interprets this sensory input, deciding what action to take, then responds.
  • This response activates muscles or glands.

Structural Classification of the Nervous System

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain and spinal cord. Is the integrating and command center.
  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Links the body's parts and carries impulses to the CNS and back.

Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System

  • Sensory (afferent) division: Carries information to the central nervous system from sensory receptors.
  • Motor (efferent) division: Carries information away from the central nervous system to effector organs. Has two subdivisions:
    • Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary. Controls skeletal muscle reflexes like a stretch reflex.
    • Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary. Controls cardiac and smooth muscle, along with glands. Has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia)

  • Astrocytes: Abundant, star-shaped cells. Brace neurons, form a barrier between capillaries and neurons, and regulate the chemical environment of the brain.
  • Microglia: Spider-like phagocytes (cells that eat debris) that dispose of debris, dead cells, and bacteria in the CNS.
  • Ependymal cells: Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord and circulate cerebrospinal fluid with cilia.
  • Oligodendrocytes: Wrap flat extensions around nerve fibers, creating myelin sheaths in the CNS.
  • Satellite cells: Protect neuron cell bodies in the PNS.
  • Schwann cells: Form myelin sheaths in the PNS.

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

  • Neurons: Specialized cells to transmit messages.
  • Major Regions: Cell body (nucleus and metabolic center), processes (fibers extending from the cell body).
    • Dendrites: Conduct impulses toward the cell body.
    • Axons: Conduct impulses away from the cell body.

Structural Classification of Neurons

  • Multipolar neurons: Many extensions from the cell body.
  • Bipolar neurons: One axon and one dendrite. Rare in adults.
  • Unipolar neurons: (also called pseudounipolar): One short process leaving from the cell body that divides into peripheral and central processes.

Neuron Cell Body Location

  • Most are located in clusters called nuclei within the central nervous system.
  • Bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS are called tracts.
  • Gray matter: cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers.
  • White matter: myelinated fibers.
  • Bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS are called nerves. Ganglia: collections of cell bodies outside the CNS.

The Reflex Arc

  • Reflex: A rapid, predictable, and involuntary response to a stimulus.
  • Reflex arc: The direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector.

Spinal Cord Anatomy

  • Internal gray matter: mostly cell bodies in dorsal and ventral horns, surrounding the central canal. Contains motor neurons of the somatic nervous system.
  • Exterior white matter: conduction tracts (major bundles of axons carrying sensory or motor information).

Blood Brain Barrier

  • Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body that exclude many potentially harmful substances.

Traumatic Brain Injuries, Ventricles and Location of Cerebrospinal Fluid

  • Concussion: Slight brain injury with brief loss of consciousness, no permanent damage.
  • Contusion: Nervous tissue destruction, no regeneration.
  • Cerebral Edema: Swelling result from inflammation.
  • Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA): Commonly called a stroke; result of a blood clot or ruptured blood vessel damaging the brain's blood supply.

The Brain Stem

  • Midbrain
  • Pons
  • Medulla Oblongata
  • Contains important fiber tracts that ascend or descend, control breathing, heart rate, etc.

Cerebellum

  • Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
  • Provides involuntary coordination of body movements, balance, and equilibrium.

Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

  • Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain, about half of the brain mass.
  • Fissures divided into lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.
  • Important areas: somatic sensory areas, primary motor area, Broca's area, etc.
  • Organized into gray (outer) and white matter (inside).

Protection of the Central Nervous System: Meninges

  • Meninges: membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. Layers include dura, arachnoid, and pia mater.

Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)

  • Similar to blood plasma, forms a watery cushion to protect the brain. Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord.

Cranial Nerves

  • 12 pairs that primarily serve the head and neck (with some exceptions).
  • Classified by function as sensory, motor, or mixed.

Spinal Nerves

  • 31 pairs in the spinal cord.
  • Mixed nerves that combine dorsal and ventral roots. They branch into dorsal and ventral rami.
  • Distribution varies.

Autonomic Nervous System

  • The involuntary branch of the nervous system. Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions with different functions and neurotransmitters.

Development Aspects of the Nervous System

  • The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development. Any maternal infection can have harmful effects.
  • The hypothalamus develops later.
  • Brain reaches its maximum weight during young adulthood.

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