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What is the study of cellular structure and function?

Cytology

What are the major tools of cytologists?

  • Light microscopy
  • Electron microscopy
  • Cell chemistry
  • All of the above (correct)

    • The cell is the structural, functional, and biological unit for all living organisms.

    True

    What is the smallest unit capable of performing all life functioning and replicating independently?

    <p>The Cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All known living things are made up of one or more cells.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Energy flow occurs within cells.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these are unicellular organisms?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these are multicellular organisms?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these are true of prokaryotic cells?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these are true of eukaryotic cells?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two major categories of prokaryotes?

    <p>Bacteria and Archaea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the size of prokaryotic cells typically?

    <p>0.1-5.0 µm in diameter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the size of eukaryotic cells typically?

    <p>10-100 µm in diameter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cell wall in bacterial prokaryotes?

    <p>Maintains the shape of the cell and is strengthened by peptidoglycan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cell wall in eukaryotic plant cells is chemically simple.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells generally lacks sterols.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Eukaryotic plasma membranes contain sterols and carbohydrates that serve as receptors.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prokaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Eukaryotic cells have a cytoskeleton.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bacterial ribosomes are larger than ribosomes in eukaryotic cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prokaryotic chromosomes consist of a single, circular chromosome, while eukaryotic chromosomes are multiple, linear, and contain histones.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually by a process called binary fission, while eukaryotic cells reproduce asexually by mitosis or sexually by meiosis.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All cells share in having a plasma membrane, cytosol, genetic material (chromosome & DNA), and ribosomes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two major classes of organelles in eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Endomembrane system and energy-related organelles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The endomembrane system in eukaryotic cells consists of the nuclear envelope, membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and vesicles.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the energy-related organelles in eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Both of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mitochondria and chloroplasts are considered to be basically independent and self-sufficient organelles

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the structure that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Nuclear envelope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chromatin is made up of DNA, and proteins.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the nucleolus?

    <p>Produces subunits of ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the organelle responsible for protein synthesis in the cell?

    <p>Ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ribosomes are composed of rRNA and proteins.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ribosomes are located on the rough endoplasmic reticulum and free in the cytoplasm either singly or in groups called polyribosomes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

    <p>A network of membranes inside a cell through which proteins and other molecules move and continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rough ER is studded with ribosomes and synthesizes and modifies proteins, while also adding sugar to proteins to form glycoproteins.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Smooth ER does not bind with ribosomes, but it does synthesize lipids, acts as a site for various synthetic processes, detoxification, and storage, and forms transport vesicles.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

    <p>A cell organelle that helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of lysosomes?

    <p>Membrane-enclosed organelles that are produced by the Golgi apparatus and contain powerful digestive enzymes that break down waste material, worn-out organelles, bacteria, and other materials in the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of mitochondria?

    <p>Contain ribosomes and their own DNA and they produce most of the ATP utilized by the cell by cellular respiration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the main types of plastids?

    <p>Etioplast, chloroplast, chromoplast, leucoplast, amyloplast, elaioplast, and proteinoplast.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chromoplasts are responsible for pigment synthesis and storage.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Leucoplasts are responsible for the synthesis of fatty acids and amino acids.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Amyloplasts are responsible for storage of starch and sugars.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Elaioplasts are responsible for storage of lipids and oils.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Proteinoplasts are responsible for sites of enzyme (protein) activity.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following should be used to see the cell structure of the Elodea plant?

    <p>Both A and B</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following should be used to see the amyloplasts in a potato?

    <p>Iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following should be used to investigate the lactobacillus bacteria in yogurt?

    <p>Water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following should be used to see the cell structure of onion epidermal cells?

    <p>Both A and B</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following should be used to investigate cheek epithelium?

    <p>Methylene blue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is cytology?

    <p>The study of cellular structure and function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the major tools used by cytologists?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fundamental unit of life?

    <p>The cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cell categories with their corresponding examples:

    <p>Prokaryotes = Bacteria and Archaea Eukaryotes = Protozoa, Animals, Plants, Fungi, and Algae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of prokaryotic cells?

    <p>Presence of a true nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the building blocks of bacterial flagella?

    <p>Two protein building blocks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the complex carbohydrate present in the cell wall of bacteria?

    <p>Peptidoglycan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the process by which prokaryotic cells divide?

    <p>Binary fission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main types of eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Animal and Plant cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Plant cells have a cell wall made of cellulose while animal cells do not.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Animal cells typically have a large central vacuole, whereas plant cells have smaller vacuoles.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following organelles is responsible for protein synthesis in the cell?

    <p>Ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main types of endoplasmic reticulum?

    <p>Rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

    <p>Processes and packages proteins and lipid molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of lysosomes?

    <p>Digest macromolecules and cellular debris, playing a role in recycling cellular resources and programmed cell death.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following organelles is responsible for cellular respiration and ATP production?

    <p>Mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chloroplasts are present in both animal and plant cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the central vacuole in plant cells?

    <p>Storage of metabolites, maintenance of turgor pressure, and structural support.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is used to stain onion epidermal cells for viewing under a microscope?

    <p>Iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the study of cellular structure and function called?

    <p>Cytology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the major tools used by cytologists?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cell is the fundamental unit of life because it is the smallest unit capable of performing all life functions and replicates independently.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the basic principles of the modern cell theory? (Select all that apply)

    <p>All known living things are made up of one or more cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two domains of unicellular organisms that are prokaryotes?

    <p>Bacteria and Archaea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four types of multicellular organisms?

    <p>Animals, plants, fungi, and algae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following characteristics with their correct descriptions:

    <p>Cell wall = Usually present in prokaryotes and chemically complex; in bacteria it includes peptidoglycan; when present in eukaryotes, it is chemically simple Nucleus = Contains genetic material (DNA) and is surrounded by a membrane, called the nuclear envelope, in eukaryotes; lacks a membrane in prokaryotes (nucleoid region) Membrane-enclosed organelles = Present in eukaryotes and absent in prokaryotes; examples include lysosomes, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and chloroplasts Flagella = Simple, consisting of two protein building blocks in prokaryotes; complex, consisting of multiple microtubules in eukaryotes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four main components that all cells share?

    <p>Plasma membrane, cytosol, genetic material (chromosome &amp; DNA), and ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the largest prokaryote, formerly called blue-green algae?

    <p>Cyanobacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bacteria are smaller than cyanobacteria and don’t have chlorophyll.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are examples of bacteria shapes?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main components of the bacteria*s cell envelope?

    <p>Plasma membrane, cell wall, and glycocalyx</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three main groups of Protists?

    <p>Amoeba, Paramecium, and Spirogyra.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Amoeba have pseudopodia for movement and surround food, and they have contractile vacuoles to get rid of waste.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four main groups of the domain Eukarya?

    <p>Protists, Fungi, Plants, and Animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of the cell acts as the command center?

    <p>Nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The nuclear envelope comprises a double layer of membrane containing nuclear pores that permit the exchange between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the nucleolus?

    <p>It produces subunits of ribosomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organelle is responsible for protein synthesis in the cell?

    <p>Ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two locations of ribosomes?

    <p>On the rough endoplasmic reticulum and free in the cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes that extends through the cell and is continuous with the nuclear envelope.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum?

    <p>Rough ER and Smooth ER</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes and synthesizes and modifies proteins, and it adds sugar to proteins to form glycoproteins.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is not bound with ribosomes and synthesizes lipids, and it’s the site of various synthetic processes, detoxification, and storage, and it forms transport vesicles.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

    <p>It processes and packages proteins and lipid molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are lysosomes?

    <p>Membrane-enclosed organelles that are produced by the Golgi apparatus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lysosomes contain powerful digestive enzymes that are highly acidic. They are involved in the digestion of large molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids to help recycle cellular resources. They also play a role in programmed cell death or apoptosis.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of mitochondria?

    <p>They produce most of the ATP utilized by the cell through cellular respiration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the different types of Plastids?

    <p>Etioplasts, chromoplasts, chloroplasts, leucoplasts, amyloplasts, elaioplasts, and proteinoplasts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chloroplasts are involved in photosynthesis and lipid synthesis.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Amyloplasts are responsible for the storage of starch and sugars.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the five steps involved in preparing a wet mount slide of onion epidermal cells?

    <ol> <li>Cut an onion into quarters; 2. Remove one of the fleshy scale leaves; 3. Snap the leaf backward to expose the epidermis; 4. Peel off a thin inner layer of epidermis; 5. Place the peeled epidermis on the slide, spread it with a dissecting needle, and add 2-3 drops of Iodine.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three steps involved in preparing a wet mount slide of Geranium leaf (epidermal cells)?

    <ol> <li>Take a fleshy geranium leaf; 2. Snap the leaf backward to expose the epidermis; 3. Peel off a thin and small layer of epidermis.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four steps involved in preparing a wet mount slide of cheek epithelium?

    <ol> <li>Add 2-3 drops of water to the slide; 2. Gently scrap the inside of your cheek with the broad end of toothpick; 3. Stir the scrapings into a drop of water on the slide ; 4. Lower a coverslip gently over your specimen with an angle to avoid air trapping.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

    Organelles that communicate with each other via membrane channels or via small vesicles are part of the endomembrane system.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The endomembrane system consists of the nuclear envelope, membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and vesicles.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Energy related organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, are basically independent and self-sufficient.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cell Structure and Function

    • Cytology is the study of cellular structure and function.
    • Cytologists use light microscopy and electron microscopy.
    • A cell is the fundamental unit of life, the structural, functional, and biological unit for all living organisms.
    • Key characteristics of the cell as the fundamental unit of life:
      • Smallest unit
      • Capable of performing all life functions
      • Replicates independently

    Modern Cell Theory

    • All known living things are made up of one or more cells.
    • All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
    • The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.
    • The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.
    • Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
    • Cells contain DNA found in the chromosome and RNA in the nucleus and cytoplasm.
    • All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.

    Cell Categories

    • Cells are categorized as either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
    • Prokaryotes:
      • Unicellular organisms
      • Two domains:
        • Bacteria
        • Archaea (live in extreme habitats)
    • Eukaryotes:
      • Unicellular organisms (e.g., Protozoa)
      • Multicellular organisms (e.g., Animals, Plants, Fungi, and Algae)

    Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells (Comparison)

    Characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
    Size of cell Small (typically 0.1-5.0 µm in diameter) Large (typically 10-100 µm in diameter)
    Nucleus No nuclear membrane; nucleoid region True nucleus with nuclear membrane and nucleoli
    Membrane-enclosed organelles Absent Present (e.g., lysosomes, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, chloroplasts)
    Flagella Consist of two protein building blocks Complex; consist of multiple microtubules
    Cell wall Usually present; chemically complex (typical bacterial cell wall includes peptidoglycan) When present, chemically simple
    Plasma membrane No carbohydrates; generally lacks sterols Sterols and carbohydrates that serve as receptors
    Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton or cytoplasmic streaming Cytoskeleton; cytoplasmic streaming
    Ribosomes Smaller size (70S) Larger size (80S); smaller size (70S) in organelles
    Chromosome arrangement Single circular chromosome; lacks histones Multiple linear chromosomes with histones
    Cell division Binary fission Mitosis or Meiosis
    Reproduction Asexual; or transfer of DNA fragments only (conjugation) Asexual or Sexual
    Level of organization Unicellular Unicellular or Multicellular

    Fundamental Structure of All Cells

    • All cells share the following fundamental structures:
    • Plasma membrane
    • Cytosol
    • Genetic material (Chromosome & DNA)
    • Ribosomes

    Example of Prokaryotes

    • Cyanobacteria:

      • The largest prokaryotes (formerly called blue-green algae)
      • Contain chlorophyll a and accessory pigments for photosynthesis (e.g., Oscillatoria, Gloeocapsa)

    • Bacteria:

      • Smaller than cyanobacteria.
      • Lack chlorophyll.
      • Examples found in yogurt (e.g., Lactobacillus)

    Bacteria Shapes

    • Coccus (spherical)
    • Bacillus (rod-shaped)
    • Spirillum (spiral)
    • Spirochete (spiral, flexible)

    Structure of Bacteria

    • Cell Envelope includes:
      • Plasma membrane (lipid bilayer with embedded and peripheral proteins)
      • Cell wall (maintains cell shape, strengthened by peptidoglycan)
      • Glycocalyx (layer of polysaccharides on the outside, resistant to removal, sometimes called a capsule)

    Eukaryotic Cells

    • Domain Eukarya includes:
      • Protists (examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Spirogyra) are single-celled, and have specific structures and mechanisms for movement and waste removal (pseudopodia, cilia, contractile vacuole).
      • Fungi
      • Plants
      • Animals

    Animal Cell Anatomy

    • Nucleus: command center of cell
    • Cytoplasm: semifluid matrix outside nucleus
    • Cytoskeleton: maintains cell shape and assists movement of cell parts
    • Centrioles: short cylinders of microtubules of unknown function
    • Centrosome: microtubule organizing center containing a pair of centrioles
    • Vesicles: small membrane-bounded sacs
    • Plasma membrane: regulates entrance and exit of molecules.
    • Mitochondria: organelle for cellular respiration.
    • Endoplasmic reticulum: protein and lipid metabolism (both rough and smooth).

    Plant Cell Anatomy

    • Nucleus: command center of the cell
    • Central vacuole: large, fluid-filled sac.
    • Cell wall: outer surface of the cell.
    • Chloroplasts: photosynthesis (site of chlorophyll)
    • Mitochondria: cellular respiration.
    • Endoplasmic reticulum: protein and lipid metabolism (both rough and smooth).

    Difference between Animal and Plant Cells

    • Plant cells have a cell wall and a large central vacuole; animal cells do not.
    • Plant cells have chloroplasts; animal cells do not.
    • Plant cells typically have one large vacuole; animal cells have multiple smaller vacuoles.

    Organelle Eukaryotic Cells - Two Classes

    • Endomembrane system -Organelles that communicate with one another via membrane channels -Consists of: - Nuclear envelope - Membranes of endoplasmic reticulum - Golgi apparatus - Vesicles
    • Energy-related organelles:
      • Mitochondria
      • Chloroplasts
      • Basically independent and self-sufficient.

    Nucleus

    • Separated from cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope (double membrane)
    • Nuclear pores permit exchange between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm
    • Contains chromatin (DNA and proteins) which condenses to form chromosomes during cell division
    • Nucleolus (composed of rRNA) produces ribosome subunits.

    Ribosomes

    • The organelle responsible for protein synthesis in the cell
    • Composed of rRNA
    • Ribosomes are located on the rough endoplasmic reticulum and free in the cytoplasm

    Endoplasmic Reticulum

    • A network of membranes inside a cell for transport of proteins and other molecules.
    • Rough ER: studded with ribosomes, synthesizes proteins and modifies them to form glycoproteins.
    • Smooth ER: not bound with ribosomes, synthesizes lipids, detoxification, and storage.

    Golgi Apparatus

    • A cell organelle that helps to process and package proteins and lipid molecules.
    • Primarily involved in processing proteins destined for export from the cell.

    Lysosomes

    • Membrane-enclosed organelles produced by the Golgi apparatus.
    • Contain powerful digestive enzymes.
    • Involved in digestion of large molecules and recycling of cellular resources.
    • A key part of apoptosis (programmed cell death).

    Mitochondria

    • Contains their own DNA and ribosomes.
    • Produce most of ATP utilized by the cell via cellular respiration.

    Plastids

    • Chloroplasts: site of photosynthesis
    • Amyloplasts: store starch and sugars
    • Proteinoplasts: sites of enzyme protein activity.

    Practical Part (Methods for viewing cells):

    • Use of stains like iodine or Janus Green B with sucrose to view specific organelles in cells.
    • Various methods for preparing different cell types like Elodea, potato, yogurt, cheek epithelium, and onion cells (for observation under a microscope).

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