Untitled Quiz

Earth as a System

• Liquid Water: Earth is the only known planet with liquid water on its surface, crucial for life.
• Heat Source: Earth receives internal heat from its core and external heat from the Sun, driving geological processes.
• Atmosphere: The atmosphere is a blanket of gases protecting Earth from harmful solar radiation and regulating temperature.
• Geosphere: Consists of Earth's rocks, soil, and minerals, forming the solid outer layer of the planet.
• Hydrosphere: Includes all the water on Earth, encompassing oceans, rivers, lakes, and groundwater.
• Atmosphere: The gaseous layer surrounding Earth, composed of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace gases.
• Biosphere: Contains all living things, interacting with other Earth systems.

Interconnected Earth Systems

• Carbon Cycle: This cycle involves the movement of carbon between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere.
  • Carbon is absorbed from the atmosphere by plants during photosynthesis.
  • Carbon is released back into the atmosphere through respiration by living organisms and the burning of fossil fuels.
  • Carbon is stored in rocks and fossil fuels, which can be released through volcanic eruptions or weathering.
• Volcanic Eruption: Can release gases, ash, and lava, influencing all Earth systems.
  • Ash can impact the atmosphere, blocking sunlight and affecting climate.
  • Lava flows can modify the geosphere, creating new landforms.
  • Volcanic eruptions can release gases that contribute to atmospheric warming.
  • Eruptions can impact the hydrosphere, causing acid rain and contaminating water sources.

Minerals

• Minerals are naturally occurring, solid inorganic compounds with a definite chemical composition and crystal structure.
• Each mineral is unique and identifiable by its physical and chemical properties.

Mineral Groups

• Silicate Minerals: The most common mineral group, containing silicon and oxygen.
• Non-Silicate Minerals: A diverse group, including carbonates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, and native metals.

Chemical Composition of Minerals

• Silicates: Composed of silicon and oxygen, often combined with other elements like aluminum, iron, and magnesium.
• Oxides: Contain oxygen bonded to a metal, such as iron oxide (hematite).
• Sulfides: Contain sulfur bonded to a metal, such as lead sulfide (galena).
• Sulfates: Contain sulfur and oxygen bonded to a metal, such as calcium sulfate (gypsum).
• Halides: Contain a halogen element (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine) bonded to a metal, such as sodium chloride (halite).
• Carbonates: Contain carbon and oxygen bonded to a metal, such as calcium carbonate (calcite).
• Native Metals: Metals found in their pure form, such as gold and copper.

Physical Properties of Minerals

• Color: The appearance of a mineral in reflected light.
• Streak: The color of a mineral's powder.
• Hardness: A mineral's resistance to scratching.
• Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to break along specific planes of weakness.
• Fracture: The way a mineral breaks when it does not cleave.
• Luster: The way a mineral reflects light.

Crystal Forms

• Isometric: Minerals with three equal axes at right angles.
• Tetragonal: Minerals with three axes at right angles, but two are equal.
• Orthorhombic: Minerals with three axes at right angles, but all are unequal.
• Monoclinic: Minerals have three unequal axes, with two axes at right angles.
• Triclinic: Minerals have three unequal axes, with none at right angles.
• Hexagonal: Minerals have four axes, three of which are equal and lie in one plane at 120 degrees.

Mineral Habit

• Dendritic: Minerals develop tree-like branches.
• Drusy: Mineral crystals form a coating on a surface.
• Granular: Minerals form tiny grains.
• Massive: Minerals form a solid mass without any clear structure.
• Reniform: Minerals have a kidney shape.
• Tabular: Minerals are flat and plate-like.

Cleavage and Fracture

• Cleavage: Minerals break along planes of weakness with smooth surfaces.
• Fracture: Minerals break with uneven surfaces.

Luster

• Metallic: The luster of metals.
• Non-metallic: A range of other lusters including vitreous (glassy), pearly, silky, and earthy.

Color and Streak

• Color: The color of a mineral can be a helpful identification tool, but it can also be misleading.
• Streak: The color of a mineral's powder, often more consistent than its color, is a reliable identification factor.

Mohs Scale of Hardness

• Hardness: A mineral's resistance to scratching, measured on the Mohs scale of hardness.
  • 1 - Talc: Softest mineral, can be scratched with a fingernail.
  • 2 - Gypsum: Can be scratched with a fingernail.
  • 3 - Calcite: Can be scratched with a copper penny.
  • 4 - Fluorite: Can be scratched with a steel knife blade.
  • 5 - Apatite: Can be scratched with a steel nail.
  • 6 - Feldspar: Can be scratched with a steel knife blade, but can be scratched by a file.
  • 7 - Quartz: Can be scratched by a file, but not by a steel knife blade.
  • 8 - Topaz: Can scratch quartz.
  • 9 - Corundum: Can scratch all other minerals except diamonds.
  • 10 - Diamond: Hardest mineral, able to scratch all other minerals.

Density

• Density: The ratio of a mineral's mass to its volume.

Common Rock-Forming Elements

• The most abundant elements in Earth's crust are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium.

Mineral Resources in the Philippines

• Metallic Minerals:
  • Gold: found in many areas, including Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.
  • Copper: Deposits found in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.
  • Iron: Found in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.
  • Nickel: Deposits found in Palawan, Zambales, and Surigao.
  • Chromite: Found in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.
• Non-Metallic Minerals:
  • Marble: Found in Palawan, Romblon, and Cebu. Used for construction material and decorative purposes.
  • Limestone: Found in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Used as a building material and to produce cement.
  • Sand and Gravel: Found in many areas. Used for construction purposes.

Rocks

• Rocks are naturally occurring solid materials composed of one or more minerals.

Three Classifications of Rocks

• Igneous Rocks: Rocks formed from cooled and solidified magma or lava.
• Sedimentary Rocks: Rocks formed from the accumulation and cementation of sediments.
• Metamorphic Rocks: Rocks formed from the transformation of existing rocks under high heat and pressure.

Igneous Rocks

• Crystalline Igneous Rocks: Have a crystalline texture with visible mineral grains.
  • Intrusive or Plutonic Rocks: Form when magma cools and solidifies below the Earth's surface.
    • Granite: A coarse-grained, light-colored rock composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica.
    • Diorite: A medium-grained, dark-colored rock composed of plagioclase feldspar, hornblende, and pyroxene.
    • Gabbro: A dark-colored, coarse-grained rock composed of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene.
  • Extrusive or Volcanic Rocks: Form when lava cools and solidifies on the Earth's surface.
    • Rhyolite: A fine-grained, light-colored rock, the extrusive equivalent of granite.
    • Andesite: A medium-grained, intermediate-colored rock, the extrusive equivalent of diorite.
    • Basalt: A dark-colored, fine-grained rock, the extrusive equivalent of gabbro.
  • Porphyritic Rocks: Have a mixture of large crystals (phenocrysts) embedded in a finer-grained matrix.
• Pyroclastic Rocks: Form from the accumulation of volcanic fragments.
  • Tuff: A rock made of consolidated volcanic ash.

Sedimentary Rocks

• Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Form from the accumulation and cementation of rock fragments.
  • Conglomerate: A coarse-grained rock composed of rounded rock fragments.
  • Breccia: A coarse-grained rock composed of angular rock fragments.
  • Sandstone: A medium-grained rock composed of sand-sized particles.
  • Siltstone: A fine-grained rock composed of silt-sized particles.
  • Shale: A very fine-grained rock composed of clay-sized particles.
• Crystalline Sedimentary Rocks: Form from the precipitation of minerals from water.
  • Rock Salt: A sedimentary rock formed by the evaporation of seawater.
  • Gypsum: A sedimentary rock formed by the evaporation of seawater.
• Bioclastic Sedimentary Rocks: Form from the accumulation of organic remains.
  • Coquina: A sedimentary rock composed of shell fragments.
  • Chalk: A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of the skeletal remains of microscopic organisms.
  • Coal: A sedimentary rock formed from the accumulation of plant debris.

Metamorphic Rocks

• Metamorphic Rocks: Form when existing rocks are subjected to high heat and pressure.
  • Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Have a layered or banded appearance due to the alignment of mineral grains.
    • Slate: A fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock formed from shale.
    • Phyllite: A medium-grained, foliated metamorphic rock formed from slate.
    • Schist: A coarse-grained, foliated metamorphic rock formed from slate or phyllite.
  • Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Do not have a layered or banded appearance.
    • Marble: A metamorphic rock formed from limestone.
    • Quartzite: A metamorphic rock formed from sandstone.

Exogenic Processes

• Exogenic Processes: External processes that operate on the Earth's surface.

Weathering

• Weathering: The process of breaking down rocks and minerals.
  • Mechanical Weathering: The physical breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces.
    • Exfoliation: The peeling or flaking of rock layers.
    • Frost Wedging: The expansion of water as it freezes in cracks in rocks.
    • Root Wedging: The growth of plant roots in cracks in rocks.
    • Thermal Expansion: The expansion and contraction of rocks due to temperature changes.
    • Salt Wedging: The expansion of salt crystals in cracks in rocks.
  • Chemical Weathering: The chemical decomposition of rocks and minerals.
    • Dissolution: The dissolving of rocks by acidic water.
    • Hydrolysis: The reaction of water with minerals to form new minerals.
    • Oxidation: The reaction of oxygen with iron-bearing minerals to form rust.
    • Hydration: The absorption of water by minerals.
    • Biological Weathering: The breakdown of rocks by living organisms.

Erosion

• Erosion: The process of transporting weathered material.

Deposition

• Deposition: The process of dropping off transported material.

Transport

• Transport: The movement of weathered material from one location to another.
  • Wind: Transports fine-grained sediments like sand and dust.
  • Water: The most significant agent of transport, carrying sediments of all sizes.
  • Ice: Glaciers can transport large amounts of material.
  • Gravity: Can cause mass wasting, the downslope movement of rock and soil.

Mass Wasting

• Mass Wasting: The downslope movement of rock and soil due to gravity.
  • Classification by Speed of Movement:
    • Creep: Slow, gradual movement of soil.
    • Slump: A rotational slide of soil or rock.
    • Flows: Rapid, fluid movement of soil or rock.
    • Slides: Rapid downslope movement of soil or rock.
    • Falls: The rapid freefall of rock or soil.
  • Classification by Type of Material:
    • Earthflow: Flow of soil.
    • Rockfall: Fall of rock fragments.
    • Debris flow: Flow of a mixture of soil, rock, and water.
  • Classification by Type of Motion:
    • Rotational Slide: A slide in which the material moves along a curved surface.
    • Translational Slide: A slide in which the material moves along a flat surface.
    • Rock Fall: A fall of rock fragments.
    • Debris Fall: A fall of a mixture of soil, rock, and water.
    • Creep: A slow, gradual movement of soil.
    • Solifluction: The movement of water-saturated soil over a frozen layer.
    • Mudflow: A rapid, fluid movement of soil and water.

Sedimentary Environments

• Sedimentary Environments: Areas where sediments are deposited.
  • Continental Environments: Areas on land, such as deserts, rivers, lakes, and glaciers.
  • Marine Environments: Areas in the ocean.
  • Transitional Environments: Areas along the coast where the land meets the sea.

Endogenic Processes

• Endogenic Processes: Internal processes that operate within the Earth.

Volcanism

• Magma: Molten rock found beneath the Earth's surface.
• Volcano: An opening in the Earth's surface through which molten rock, ash, and gases are erupted.
• Eruption: The release of molten rock, ash, and gases from a volcano.

Two Types of Eruptions

• Effusive Eruption: A gentle, non-explosive eruption of lava.
• Explosive Eruption: A violent eruption of ash, gas, and rock fragments.

Volcano Types

• Shield Volcano: A broad, gently sloping volcano formed by effusive eruptions of lava.
• Stratovolcanoes or Composite Volcanoes: A tall, cone-shaped volcano formed by alternating layers of lava flows and pyroclastic material.

Volcanic Landforms

• Caldera: A large, crater-like depression formed by the collapse of a volcano.
• Lava Flow: A stream of molten rock that flows from a volcano.
• Volcanic Dome: A rounded, mound-shaped structure formed by the slow extrusion of viscous lava.
• Cinder Cone: A small, cone-shaped volcano formed by the accumulation of pyroclastic material.
• Volcanic Plug: A solidified column of lava that fills the throat of a volcano.
• Fissure Eruption: An eruption from a crack or fissure in the Earth's surface.
• Hot Spring: A spring that releases hot water heated by geothermal activity.
• Geyser: A hot spring that erupts periodically, releasing steam and hot water.
• Mud Volcano: A volcano that releases mud and gas.