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Questions and Answers

What components compose the blood-brain barrier?

  • Neurons, glial cells, and capillaries
  • Glycoproteins, connective tissue, and neurons
  • Tight junctions of endothelial cells, basement membrane, and astrocyte endfeet (correct)
  • Myelin sheaths, Schwann cells, and red blood cells

    • Which substances can easily cross the blood-brain barrier?

  • Bacteria and viruses
  • Large protein molecules
  • Water-soluble vitamins
  • Lipid soluble compounds like alcohol (correct)

    • What is a unique feature of circumventricular organs?

  • They are completely impermeable to blood substances.
  • They are found only in the cerebellum.
  • They only respond to electrical signals from neurons.
  • They allow certain substances in the blood to interact directly with brain tissue. (correct)

    • Why is the median eminence important in the context of the blood-brain barrier?

    <p>It allows cytokines and hormones to pass into the hypothalamus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes spatially focused synaptic connectivity from widely divergent patterns?

    <p>Widely divergent connectivity means that a single neuron influences multiple targets.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes cell necrosis?

    <p>Cell swelling and explosion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT a trigger for apoptosis?

    <p>Mechanical injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is associated with both cell necrosis and apoptosis?

    <p>Mitochondrial dysfunction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary acid-base disturbance in the case presented?

    <p>Metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a situation involving cell apoptosis, which of the following is a common appearance feature?

    <p>Cell collapse or shrinkage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which laboratory result can indicate metabolic acidosis?

    <p>Low blood pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical consequence of uncontrolled cell necrosis?

    <p>Inflammatory response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the immune system play in apoptosis?

    <p>Induces programmed cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of calcitonin released by parafollicular cells?

    <p>Regulates calcium levels in the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of iodine in the synthesis of thyroid hormones?

    <p>Is crucial for the formation of T3 and T4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the metabolic function of thyroid hormones?

    <p>Increase metabolic rate and energy consumption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is T3 and T4 released from the thyroid follicles?

    <p>Following TRH and TSH signaling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure in the thyroid serves as the storage center for hormones?

    <p>Colloid within the follicles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the storage of T3 and T4 in colloid important?

    <p>It ensures a steady supply for metabolic homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the major physiological effects of thyroid hormones?

    <p>Stimulate glucose consumption and increase BMR</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Na-K pump formed by thyroid hormones?

    <p>Regulates cellular sodium and potassium levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of afferent neurons?

    <p>To transmit sensory information to the CNS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion has an equilibrium potential of -90 mV?

    <p>K+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factors primarily influence the resting membrane potential?

    <p>Ions present and their permeability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which part of the nervous system are interneurons exclusively found?

    <p>Central Nervous System (CNS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the equilibrium potential indicate about ion movement?

    <p>There is no net movement of that specific ion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During an action potential, which ion primarily flows out of the cell during the repolarization phase?

    <p>K+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the presence of leak channels affect resting membrane potential?

    <p>They allow for specific ions to contribute to potential.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the equilibrium potential for sodium ions (Na+)?

    <p>+60 mV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is characterized by an elevated osmolarity of the ECF due to increased solute concentration?

    <p>Hypertonic alterations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a cause of hypotonic alterations in the ECF?

    <p>Vomiting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does acidosis have on potassium levels in the ECF?

    <p>It increases potassium levels in the ECF.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does insulin affect the movement of potassium between ICF and ECF?

    <p>Insulin decreases potassium in the ECF.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following conditions can lead to hyperchloremia?

    <p>Excess ammonium chloride diuretic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can result from inadequate water intake leading to hypernatremia?

    <p>Increased concentration of ECF</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect do catecholamines have on potassium movement in the context of ECF?

    <p>They can either increase or decrease potassium levels depending on receptor binding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is primarily responsible for potassium moving into the cells during acute hyperkalemia treatment?

    <p>Increased insulin secretion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Conditions Affecting ECF

    • Isotonic Alterations: ECF fluid concentration changes without altering osmolarity between ICF and ECF.

      • Causes include isotonic volume depletion (e.g., hemorrhage, wound drainage) and isotonic volume excess (e.g., excess IV fluids, hyperaldosteronism).

    • Hypertonic Alterations: ECF osmolarity increases due to higher solute concentration.

      • Causes include hypernatremia (inadequate water intake, hypertonic saline), water deficit, and hyperchloremia (often due to excess sodium or ammonium chloride diuretics).

    • Hypotonic Alterations: ECF osmolarity decreases because of a drop in solute concentration.

      • Causes include hyponatremia (diuretics, vomiting, diarrhea), water excess (renal failure, SIADH), and hypochloremia (loss of HCl, excessive bicarbonate).

    Potassium Balance and Shifts

    • Changes in ECF/ICF pH affect potassium levels:

      • Acidosis causes H+ to enter cells, leading to increased potassium levels (hyperkalemia).
      • Alkalosis causes K+ to enter cells, resulting in decreased potassium levels (hypokalemia).

    • Insulin influences potassium:

      • Increased insulin promotes K+ entry into cells, aiding glycogen formation, while decreased insulin keeps K+ outside.

    • Catecholamines affect potassium movement:

      • B2 adrenergic stimulation (e.g., epinephrine) increases intracellular K+.
      • Alpha 2 adrenergic stimulation causes K+ to exit cells.

    Types of Cell Death

    • Necrosis: Unintentional cell death characterized by swelling and cell lysis.
    • Apoptosis: Controlled cell death marked by cell shrinkage; triggered by viral infection, DNA damage, or cell stress.

    Homeostatic Feedback Systems

    • Negative feedback loops maintain vital biological parameters.
    • Control systems of the body include efferent and afferent neurons, which communicate through interneurons.

    Equilibrium Potential

    • Represents the membrane potential at which there is no net ion movement.
    • Chemical driving forces are determined by concentration differences, while electrical driving forces are influenced by membrane potential.
    • K+ has an equilibrium potential of -90 mV, while Na+ has +60 mV.

    Resting Membrane Potential

    • The resting membrane potential is typically -86 mV.
    • Factors influencing it include ion presence (K+, Na+, Cl-, Ca2+), their equilibrium potentials, and permeability, especially for K+.

    Action Potential Changes

    • Resting potential maintained by K+ leak channels.
    • Membrane potential changes during action potential involve depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization.

    Circumventricular Organs

    • Specialized areas of the BBB with increased permeability.
    • Facilitate direct interactions between circulating hormones and the brain, allowing immune signals (e.g., cytokines) to influence hypothalamic function.

    Synaptic Connectivity Patterns

    • Spatially focused connectivity features direct communication to specific neurons, while widely divergent patterns allow for broader dissemination of signals across many neurons.

    Thyroid Hormones

    • Comprised of follicles lined with follicular cells, storing T3 and T4 due to iodine uptake.
    • Iodine is critical for hormone synthesis and must be acquired through diet.

    Physiological Effects of Thyroid Hormone

    • Regulate metabolic activity and energy consumption by increasing BMR.
    • Stimulates formation of Na-K pumps, gluconeogenic enzymes, respiratory enzymes, and adrenergic receptors enhancing the SNS response.

    Adrenal Gland Zones

    • The adrenal glands have two major zones: the cortex and the medulla, differing in hormone production and physiological roles.

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