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Which of the following describes a compound proposition?

  • The simplest logical form consisting of one fact.
  • A collection of literals without negation.
  • A statement that is either true or false.
  • A statement formed from two or more atomic propositions. (correct)

    • An atomic proposition can represent a fact and has no inherent meaning to the order of its components.

    True

    What is a Horn Clause?

    A restricted form of propositions with either a single atomic proposition on the left side or an empty left side.

    A Prolog ______ is the basic building block that represents a symbolic constant or name that cannot be subdivided further.

    <p>atom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly defines a quantifier?

    <p>A term that specifies the quantity of instances.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A Prolog variable is always bound to a particular type.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process combines two clauses containing complementary literals in resolution?

    <p>Elimination of complementary literals to produce a new clause.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Prolog.Term = A constant, variable, or structure Prolog.Constant = An atom or symbolic value Horn Clause = A clause with a single atomic proposition or empty left side Resolution = Combining clauses to derive new clauses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a hypothesis represent in reasoning or investigation?

    <p>An assumption or proposition for testing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prolog rules can define new predicates based solely on existing Prolog facts.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of Prolog unification?

    <p>To bind values to variables that support the proof of the goal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Inference in Prolog determines if Q is a fact or requires a sequence of _____ and _____ to lead to Q.

    <p>facts, rules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the Prolog concepts with their descriptions:

    <p>Depth First = Find all support for the first clause before moving to the next Breadth Search = Uses backtracking to explore options Forward Chaining = Starts with known facts to derive new facts Backward Chaining = Works from the goal down to the facts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes backward chaining?

    <p>Starting with the goal and proving each clause</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Forward chaining is a data-driven approach that starts with known facts.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do Prolog facts do?

    <p>They define predicates by specifying the elements that satisfy those predicates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary design basis for functional programming languages?

    <p>Mathematical functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Functional programming allows changing the value of variables.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do we call unnamed mathematical function definitions?

    <p>lambda expressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A function that takes functions as parameters is called a ______.

    <p>higher-order function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes referential transparency?

    <p>Replacing an expression with its value without altering behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In functional programming, the execution of a function may produce different results when given the same parameters.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of functional language design?

    <p>To mimic mathematical functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does referential transparency imply about an expression?

    <p>The expression can be replaced with its result without affecting correctness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Lisp, the 'car' function retrieves the last element of a list.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the 'cons' function in Lisp?

    <p>It adds an element to the front of a list.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In programming, ______ abstraction allows for the definition and collection of instances based on common attributes.

    <p>data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Lisp functions to their descriptions:

    <p>car = First element of a list cdr = List of everything but the first value append = Merges two lists list = Builds a list from given elements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of evaluation only occurs when the value is needed?

    <p>Lazy evaluation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An expression that is not referentially transparent may produce different results based on the same inputs.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes strict evaluation from lazy evaluation?

    <p>Strict evaluation computes all parameters immediately, while lazy evaluation computes values only when needed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does an abstract data type (ADT) primarily provide?

    <p>Operations on data and data representation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stack implementation details need to be known for effective usage.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What feature of encapsulation enhances reliability in programming?

    <p>It hides internal code, preventing direct modifications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In object-oriented programming, __________ allows modification of an existing data type without altering the original.

    <p>inheritance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding multiple inheritance?

    <p>Classes can inherit from two or more parent classes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their definitions:

    <p>Encapsulation = Hiding internal representation and operations Inheritance = Extending existing class functionality Single Inheritance = Inheriting from one direct superclass Multiple Inheritance = Inheriting from more than one class</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Localizing changes to code within an object reduces complexity for the programmer.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name two benefits of using abstract data types in programming.

    <p>Increased reliability and code reusability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does polymorphism in object-oriented programming refer to?

    <p>The dynamic binding of a behavior to an object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In object-oriented programming, a subclass can inherit from multiple parent classes directly.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the relationship between a base class and its derived class?

    <p>inheritance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In object-oriented programming, encapsulation is primarily achieved through _________.

    <p>information hiding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is NOT a design issue for object-oriented languages?

    <p>Static vs dynamic typing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Subclassing allows for the specialization of objects the further down the inheritance hierarchy you go.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does it mean when a subclass is treated as a subtype?

    <p>It means that the subclass can be used interchangeably with its parent class.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Logic Programming

    • Logic programming involves a collection of facts and rules.
    • It doesn't describe the computation process explicitly.
    • It uses predicate calculus for representation and inference.

    Declarative Languages vs. Imperative Languages

    • Declarative languages specify the desired outcome without detailing the steps.
    • Imperative languages prescribe precise instructions, controlling the execution steps.

    Imperative Languages

    • Imperative languages manipulate a machine's state by specifying a sequence of instructions.
    • They control how variables change and data is managed (input/output).
    • They use control structures (loops, conditionals) and explicit state changes.

    Declarative Semantics

    • Declarative semantics defines a program's meaning based on its computed results or representations.
    • It abstracts away the computational steps.
    • Prolog, for example, specifies facts and rules, with the semantics based on logical entailment.

    Declarative Languages

    • Declarative languages focus on the desired result without detailing how to achieve it.
    • They often rely on underlying implementations to handle execution flow and state management.
    • Examples include HTML and Prolog.

    Predicate Calculus

    • Formal logic statements use symbols to represent constants and variables.
    • Constants represent fixed objects.

    Propositions

    • A declarative statement is either true or false.

    Atomic Propositions

    • The simplest logical form; often represents facts.

    Compound Propositions

    • A proposition formed from two or more atomic propositions.
    • Includes logical operators such as negation, conjunction, disjunction, equivalence, implication.

    Quantifiers

    • Specific words (all, no, some, many) used to express propositions.

    Horn Clauses

    • Specific proposition form.
    • Can be single atomic propositions or an empty left side (fact).
    • Examples include "mammal(M):-cat(M)" which is a rule.

    Resolution

    • A process combining clauses with complementary literals to derive conclusions or contradictions.
    • Repetition generates new clauses until contradictions or resolutions lead to the conclusion.

    Prolog Atoms

    • Fundamental units representing symbolic constants, relations, or functors.

    Prolog Constants

    • Symbolic value or integers.

    Prolog Terms

    • Includes constants, variables, and structures.

    Prolog Variables

    • Begin with an uppercase letter.

    Prolog Hypotheses

    • A statement, assumption, or proposition as a basis for reasoning or investigation.

    Prolog Goals

    • Queries in Prolog that require value binding for variables through resolution.

    Prolog Rules

    • Defines new predicates using existing predicates.
    • Specify elements satisfying the defined predicates.

    Inferencing

    • Derives the required conclusion through a sequence of facts and rules.

    Prolog Unification

    • This involves matching variables to find values.
    • For instance, in "Socrates is a human, and all humans are mortal," unification determines Socrates is mortal.
    • Checks all possibilities for the first clause before moving to the next.
    • Evaluates one value at a time, moving to the next clause as required, and uses backtracking.

    Forward Chaining

    • Uses known facts to apply rules for deriving new facts until the goal is reached.

    Backward Chaining

    • Works from the desired result (goal) to find supporting rules and facts.

    Functional Programming

    • Based on mathematical functions and avoids state changes.
    • Focuses on mapping inputs to outputs without side effects.

    Mathematical Functions

    • A mapping of one set (domain) to another set (range).
    • Doesn't have any side effects; the same input always yields the same output.

    Simple Functions

    • These map domain elements to range elements uniquely.

    Higher-Order Functions

    • Functions that take functions as input or return functions as output, or both.

    Mapping Functions

    • Applies a function to all elements of an input set.

    Functional Languages

    • Design goal is to mimic mathematical functions, emphasizing composition and recursion.

    Functional Language Fundamentals

    • Programs are sets of functions, with functions taking functions as arguments or returning them.
    • Compiler handles intermediate values, producing consistent results to known inputs.

    Referential Transparency

    • An expression can be replaced with its value in an expression without changing the program's behavior.

    Lisp Atoms

    • Numeric or symbolic values.

    Lisp Lists

    • Data structures consisting of linked elements.

    List Functions (e.g., quote, car, cdr, cons, append, etc.)

    • Built-in functions for manipulating lists. (Specific functions are enumerated and explained in the text)

    Lazy vs Strict Evaluation

    • Strict evaluation requires all arguments to be evaluated before applying a function.
    • Lazy evaluation delays evaluation until a value is needed, improving efficiency.

    Abstraction

    • Representation of an entity with only its most critical attributes.

    Process Abstraction

    • Allows programs to specify tasks without revealing their details (using subprograms).

    Data Abstraction

    • Encapsulates data and operations in a single unit. Modern programming leverages this for organized data management.

    Abstract Data Type (ADT)

    • Encloses data representation with operations, providing structure and hiding implementation.

    Information Hiding

    • Internal implementation details of data types are hidden from users.

    Encapsulation

    • Combines data and operations into a single unit; promotes maintainability.

    Inheritance

    • Allows a new class to inherit properties & methods from an existing class, extending functionality.

    Multiple Inheritance

    • Extends functionality supporting inheritances from multiple classes; potentially complex.

    Generalization/Specialization

    • Inheritance hierarchy's relationship is specialized.

    Terms to Describe Inheritance

    • Base/Derived/Parent/Child, Superclass/Subclass.

    Polymorphism

    • Dynamic binding of behaviors. Example: a Shape class has a draw operation that varies in subclasses.

    Design Issues for Object-Oriented Languages

    • Object exclusivity, subtype treatment, multiple inheritances.

    What Makes a Language Object-Oriented?

    • Features like information hiding, encapsulation, inheritance (single and multiple), and polymorphism.

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