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Questions and Answers

Which of the following describes a compound proposition?

  • The simplest logical form consisting of one fact.
  • A collection of literals without negation.
  • A statement that is either true or false.
  • A statement formed from two or more atomic propositions. (correct)

An atomic proposition can represent a fact and has no inherent meaning to the order of its components.

True (A)

What is a Horn Clause?

A restricted form of propositions with either a single atomic proposition on the left side or an empty left side.

A Prolog ______ is the basic building block that represents a symbolic constant or name that cannot be subdivided further.

<p>atom</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly defines a quantifier?

<p>A term that specifies the quantity of instances. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A Prolog variable is always bound to a particular type.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process combines two clauses containing complementary literals in resolution?

<p>Elimination of complementary literals to produce a new clause.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their definitions:

<p>Prolog.Term = A constant, variable, or structure Prolog.Constant = An atom or symbolic value Horn Clause = A clause with a single atomic proposition or empty left side Resolution = Combining clauses to derive new clauses</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a hypothesis represent in reasoning or investigation?

<p>An assumption or proposition for testing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Prolog rules can define new predicates based solely on existing Prolog facts.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of Prolog unification?

<p>To bind values to variables that support the proof of the goal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Inference in Prolog determines if Q is a fact or requires a sequence of _____ and _____ to lead to Q.

<p>facts, rules</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the Prolog concepts with their descriptions:

<p>Depth First = Find all support for the first clause before moving to the next Breadth Search = Uses backtracking to explore options Forward Chaining = Starts with known facts to derive new facts Backward Chaining = Works from the goal down to the facts</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes backward chaining?

<p>Starting with the goal and proving each clause (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Forward chaining is a data-driven approach that starts with known facts.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do Prolog facts do?

<p>They define predicates by specifying the elements that satisfy those predicates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary design basis for functional programming languages?

<p>Mathematical functions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Functional programming allows changing the value of variables.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do we call unnamed mathematical function definitions?

<p>lambda expressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

A function that takes functions as parameters is called a ______.

<p>higher-order function</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes referential transparency?

<p>Replacing an expression with its value without altering behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In functional programming, the execution of a function may produce different results when given the same parameters.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of functional language design?

<p>To mimic mathematical functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does referential transparency imply about an expression?

<p>The expression can be replaced with its result without affecting correctness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Lisp, the 'car' function retrieves the last element of a list.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the 'cons' function in Lisp?

<p>It adds an element to the front of a list.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In programming, ______ abstraction allows for the definition and collection of instances based on common attributes.

<p>data</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following Lisp functions to their descriptions:

<p>car = First element of a list cdr = List of everything but the first value append = Merges two lists list = Builds a list from given elements</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of evaluation only occurs when the value is needed?

<p>Lazy evaluation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

An expression that is not referentially transparent may produce different results based on the same inputs.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes strict evaluation from lazy evaluation?

<p>Strict evaluation computes all parameters immediately, while lazy evaluation computes values only when needed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does an abstract data type (ADT) primarily provide?

<p>Operations on data and data representation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stack implementation details need to be known for effective usage.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What feature of encapsulation enhances reliability in programming?

<p>It hides internal code, preventing direct modifications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In object-oriented programming, __________ allows modification of an existing data type without altering the original.

<p>inheritance</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding multiple inheritance?

<p>Classes can inherit from two or more parent classes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their definitions:

<p>Encapsulation = Hiding internal representation and operations Inheritance = Extending existing class functionality Single Inheritance = Inheriting from one direct superclass Multiple Inheritance = Inheriting from more than one class</p> Signup and view all the answers

Localizing changes to code within an object reduces complexity for the programmer.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name two benefits of using abstract data types in programming.

<p>Increased reliability and code reusability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does polymorphism in object-oriented programming refer to?

<p>The dynamic binding of a behavior to an object (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In object-oriented programming, a subclass can inherit from multiple parent classes directly.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the relationship between a base class and its derived class?

<p>inheritance</p> Signup and view all the answers

In object-oriented programming, encapsulation is primarily achieved through _________.

<p>information hiding</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT a design issue for object-oriented languages?

<p>Static vs dynamic typing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Subclassing allows for the specialization of objects the further down the inheritance hierarchy you go.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean when a subclass is treated as a subtype?

<p>It means that the subclass can be used interchangeably with its parent class.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Proposition

A statement that is either true or false, but not both.

Atomic Proposition

Simplest logical form; a statement of a fact (e.g., csmajor(jake), like(bob, steak)).

Compound Proposition

A proposition formed from two or more atomic propositions using logical connectives (e.g., negation, conjunction).

Quantifier

Words like 'all', 'no', 'some', or 'many' that specify how many things satisfy a proposition.

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Horn Clause

A restricted form of proposition with a single atomic proposition on the left side or empty (fact).

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Resolution

Combining clauses with complementary literals to derive new clauses; eliminating those literals to find conclusions or contradictions.

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Prolog Atom

A symbolic constant (e.g., a name) or integer that cannot be broken down.

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Prolog Variable

Starts with a capital letter; not bound to types; values are bound during resolution.

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Prolog Goals

Queries in Prolog used in theorem proving.

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Prolog Rules

Define new Prolog predicates using existing ones.

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Prolog Facts

Specify elements satisfying Prolog predicates, the basis.

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Inferencing

Finding facts/rules leading to a goal, like deductive reasoning.

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Prolog Unification

Binding values to variables in Prolog rules to prove goals.

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Depth-first Search

Prolog search method exploring one clause's support completely before moving on.

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Forward Chaining

An inference method starting with known facts and applying rules to find new facts until the goal is achieved.

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Backward Chaining

Working with rule clauses top-down to prove a goal. Starts with the goal (top) and uses the rules to get to facts.

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Referential Transparency

An expression can be replaced with its result without changing the program's behavior. It always produces the same output given the same input and has no side effects.

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Lisp Atom

A basic building block in Lisp, representing either a number or a symbol.

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Lisp List

A data structure in Lisp that holds a sequence of elements, where each element can be an atom or another list.

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Quote Function (Lisp)

Used to prevent evaluation of a list, treating it literally as data rather than code.

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Car Function (Lisp)

Returns the first element of a list.

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Cdr Function (Lisp)

Returns a list containing all elements except the first one.

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Cons Function (Lisp)

Adds an element to the beginning of a list, creating a new list.

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Lazy vs. Strict Evaluation

Lazy evaluation only computes values when needed, improving efficiency for large or potentially infinite data structures, while strict evaluation calculates all values at once, potentially leading to time consumption.

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Functional Programming

A programming paradigm that emphasizes functions as the primary building blocks of software. It avoids mutable state and side effects, focusing on pure functions that produce deterministic results based on their inputs.

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Mathematical Functions

A mapping between input values (domain) and output values (range). Each input maps uniquely to a single output, ensuring consistency and predictability.

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Simple Functions

Fundamental building blocks in functional programming. Often defined with a name, input parameters, and a mapping expression. Anonymous functions are called lambda expressions.

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Higher-order Functions

Functions that operate on or return other functions. They enable code reuse and abstraction, allowing for flexible manipulation of functions.

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Mapping Function

Applies a given function to each element in a collection of data, producing a new collection with transformed elements.

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Fundamentals of Functional Languages

Design principles that emphasize mathematical functions. They avoid explicit state management, rely on recursion for repetition, and aim for pure functions that produce consistent outputs.

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Functional Programming Goals

Functional programming aims to create code that is: predictable, maintainable, reusable, and easier to test. It emphasizes clarity and avoids side effects.

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Abstract Data Type (ADT)

A data structure that describes a set of data and operations that can be performed on that data, without specifying how the data is actually stored.

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Information Hiding

The principle of concealing the internal representation of a data type from its users, thereby separating the interface from the implementation.

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Encapsulation

Combining the definition of a data type and its operations into a single unit (e.g., class, module).

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Inheritance (in OOP)

The ability to create a new data type (derived type) that inherits the properties and methods of an existing type (base type), allowing for code reuse and extension.

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How does inheritance support OOP?

Extending and modifying existing types: adding new methods, overriding existing ones, and sharing class-level members.

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Single Inheritance

A derived class inherits from only one parent class.

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Multiple Inheritance

A derived class inherits from more than one parent class.

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What is the difference between Single Inheritance and Multiple Inheritance?

Single inheritance allows a class to inherit from only one parent class, while multiple inheritance allows a class to inherit from multiple parent classes.

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Inheritance

A mechanism where a class can inherit properties and methods from another class (its parent or superclass). This allows for code reuse and creating specialized classes based on existing ones.

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Superclass

The parent class in an inheritance hierarchy. It provides the base properties and methods that are inherited.

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Subclass

The child class in an inheritance hierarchy. It inherits from a superclass and can add new properties and methods or override inherited ones.

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Polymorphism

The ability of an object to take on many forms depending on its context. It allows the same method to be executed differently depending on the object's type.

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Design Issues for OO Languages

Considerations for designing object-oriented programming languages, such as whether everything is an object, how subclasses are treated, inheritance strategies, object allocation, and other features.

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Study Notes

Logic Programming

  • Logic programming involves a collection of facts and rules.
  • It doesn't describe the computation process explicitly.
  • It uses predicate calculus for representation and inference.

Declarative Languages vs. Imperative Languages

  • Declarative languages specify the desired outcome without detailing the steps.
  • Imperative languages prescribe precise instructions, controlling the execution steps.

Imperative Languages

  • Imperative languages manipulate a machine's state by specifying a sequence of instructions.
  • They control how variables change and data is managed (input/output).
  • They use control structures (loops, conditionals) and explicit state changes.

Declarative Semantics

  • Declarative semantics defines a program's meaning based on its computed results or representations.
  • It abstracts away the computational steps.
  • Prolog, for example, specifies facts and rules, with the semantics based on logical entailment.

Declarative Languages

  • Declarative languages focus on the desired result without detailing how to achieve it.
  • They often rely on underlying implementations to handle execution flow and state management.
  • Examples include HTML and Prolog.

Predicate Calculus

  • Formal logic statements use symbols to represent constants and variables.
  • Constants represent fixed objects.

Propositions

  • A declarative statement is either true or false.

Atomic Propositions

  • The simplest logical form; often represents facts.

Compound Propositions

  • A proposition formed from two or more atomic propositions.
  • Includes logical operators such as negation, conjunction, disjunction, equivalence, implication.

Quantifiers

  • Specific words (all, no, some, many) used to express propositions.

Horn Clauses

  • Specific proposition form.
  • Can be single atomic propositions or an empty left side (fact).
  • Examples include "mammal(M):-cat(M)" which is a rule.

Resolution

  • A process combining clauses with complementary literals to derive conclusions or contradictions.
  • Repetition generates new clauses until contradictions or resolutions lead to the conclusion.

Prolog Atoms

  • Fundamental units representing symbolic constants, relations, or functors.

Prolog Constants

  • Symbolic value or integers.

Prolog Terms

  • Includes constants, variables, and structures.

Prolog Variables

  • Begin with an uppercase letter.

Prolog Hypotheses

  • A statement, assumption, or proposition as a basis for reasoning or investigation.

Prolog Goals

  • Queries in Prolog that require value binding for variables through resolution.

Prolog Rules

  • Defines new predicates using existing predicates.
  • Specify elements satisfying the defined predicates.

Inferencing

  • Derives the required conclusion through a sequence of facts and rules.

Prolog Unification

  • This involves matching variables to find values.
  • For instance, in "Socrates is a human, and all humans are mortal," unification determines Socrates is mortal.
  • Checks all possibilities for the first clause before moving to the next.
  • Evaluates one value at a time, moving to the next clause as required, and uses backtracking.

Forward Chaining

  • Uses known facts to apply rules for deriving new facts until the goal is reached.

Backward Chaining

  • Works from the desired result (goal) to find supporting rules and facts.

Functional Programming

  • Based on mathematical functions and avoids state changes.
  • Focuses on mapping inputs to outputs without side effects.

Mathematical Functions

  • A mapping of one set (domain) to another set (range).
  • Doesn't have any side effects; the same input always yields the same output.

Simple Functions

  • These map domain elements to range elements uniquely.

Higher-Order Functions

  • Functions that take functions as input or return functions as output, or both.

Mapping Functions

  • Applies a function to all elements of an input set.

Functional Languages

  • Design goal is to mimic mathematical functions, emphasizing composition and recursion.

Functional Language Fundamentals

  • Programs are sets of functions, with functions taking functions as arguments or returning them.
  • Compiler handles intermediate values, producing consistent results to known inputs.

Referential Transparency

  • An expression can be replaced with its value in an expression without changing the program's behavior.

Lisp Atoms

  • Numeric or symbolic values.

Lisp Lists

  • Data structures consisting of linked elements.

List Functions (e.g., quote, car, cdr, cons, append, etc.)

  • Built-in functions for manipulating lists. (Specific functions are enumerated and explained in the text)

Lazy vs Strict Evaluation

  • Strict evaluation requires all arguments to be evaluated before applying a function.
  • Lazy evaluation delays evaluation until a value is needed, improving efficiency.

Abstraction

  • Representation of an entity with only its most critical attributes.

Process Abstraction

  • Allows programs to specify tasks without revealing their details (using subprograms).

Data Abstraction

  • Encapsulates data and operations in a single unit. Modern programming leverages this for organized data management.

Abstract Data Type (ADT)

  • Encloses data representation with operations, providing structure and hiding implementation.

Information Hiding

  • Internal implementation details of data types are hidden from users.

Encapsulation

  • Combines data and operations into a single unit; promotes maintainability.

Inheritance

  • Allows a new class to inherit properties & methods from an existing class, extending functionality.

Multiple Inheritance

  • Extends functionality supporting inheritances from multiple classes; potentially complex.

Generalization/Specialization

  • Inheritance hierarchy's relationship is specialized.

Terms to Describe Inheritance

  • Base/Derived/Parent/Child, Superclass/Subclass.

Polymorphism

  • Dynamic binding of behaviors. Example: a Shape class has a draw operation that varies in subclasses.

Design Issues for Object-Oriented Languages

  • Object exclusivity, subtype treatment, multiple inheritances.

What Makes a Language Object-Oriented?

  • Features like information hiding, encapsulation, inheritance (single and multiple), and polymorphism.

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