Chapter 2: Language choice in multilingual communities

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Questions and Answers

Which language was associated with the business world by Mr. Rupa in Papua New Guinea?

English

Tok Pisin (correct)

Buang

French

Why might people have negative attitudes toward code-switching, labeling it as 'Tex Mex' or 'joual'?

It is illegal.

They view it as a lack of language purity or correctness. (correct)

They do not understand it.

It is officially discouraged.

How might increased ethnic self-consciousness affect attitudes toward code-switching?

It discourages bilingualism.

It may lead to more positive attitudes and acceptance of code-switching. (correct)

It results in stricter language separation.

It has no effect.

In the discussion of code-switching, what does 'social meaning' refer to?

The underlying social implications or messages conveyed through language choice. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What can cause 'reversal' in the roles of High (H) and Low (L) varieties in a society?

Political or social shifts that elevate the status of the Low variety. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In which way is the concept of 'language planning' relevant to diglossia?

It involves efforts to change or maintain the functions of High and Low varieties. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does code-switching enhance the expressive capacity of bilingual speakers?

By providing additional linguistic resources to convey nuanced meanings. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In terms of code-switching, what does 'functionally differentiated use of language' mean?

Each language or variety serves particular functions or is used in specific contexts. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How might code-switching be strategically used in business contexts?

To assert authority and professional identity by switching to a language associated with business. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In which context did Polly use Patois to reprimand her teacher?

When the teacher criticized her story unfairly. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the use of code-switching in narratives?

It enriches narratives by expressing different perspectives and emotions. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the concept of 'diglossia with bilingualism,' what is the typical language proficiency of individuals?

Individuals are typically bilingual, using both varieties. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Why did students in Hemnesberget feel 'appalled' upon hearing their own code-switching?

They realized they were violating language norms. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is one effect of institutional attitudes towards code-switching?

They can influence individuals to view code-switching negatively. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does 'code-switching' differ from 'diglossia'?

Code-switching occurs at the individual level, while diglossia is a societal phenomenon. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What role does code-switching play in language maintenance?

It can help maintain minority languages by keeping them in active use. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Why might someone use a proverb in another language during conversation?

To draw on cultural wisdom associated with that language. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does code-switching function in expressing affective meaning?

By allowing speakers to express emotions more effectively through the associations of different codes. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason code-switching might not always be accounted for by known factors?

Multilingual individuals may choose languages spontaneously without conscious reasoning. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In multilingual societies, what is a common attitude towards 'linguistic purism'?

It may be challenged by positive views of code-switching and multilingualism. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'social dimension' refer to in sociolinguistics?

Factors like social distance, status, and formality influencing language use. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of code-switching on language vitality in minority communities?

It can help revitalize and sustain the minority language. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of code-switching, what does the term 'social norms' refer to?

Established patterns and expectations of language use within a community. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What does 'institutionalized bilingualism' mean in the context of diglossia?

The use of two languages for different functions at the societal level. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How is the concept of 'covert prestige' relevant to Low (L) varieties in diglossia?

L varieties may have a hidden prestige among speakers, reflecting solidarity and identity. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'domain' in language use, and how does it affect code choice?

A social context involving typical participants and settings that influence language choice. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How is 'topic' a factor in code-switching?

Certain topics may be more easily or appropriately discussed in one language. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Why might code-switching be seen as reflecting a speaker's linguistic competence?

It demonstrates the ability to navigate multiple languages skillfully. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How does code-switching function in reinforcing power dynamics in conversation?

It allows speakers to assert authority or submit to dominance. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion does the chapter reach about the predictability of code-switching?

It can sometimes be predicted based on social and linguistic factors, but not always. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Why might speakers use the High (H) variety when expressing disapproval?

To distance themselves and signal authority. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is least likely to contribute to code choice?

The weather conditions. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of 'leakage' in domain-based language use?

It refers to the use of language from one domain in another domain. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In sociolinguistics, what does 'ethnic identity marker' mean in the context of code-switching?

A language feature that signifies belonging to a particular ethnic group. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What might cause code-switching to be 'unconscious' among speakers?

Frequent switching makes it a natural part of speech patterns. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does code-switching relate to the 'solidarity/social distance dimension'?

It is used to express and negotiate levels of solidarity or distance between speakers. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which language did young people in Bukavu use to express modernity and sophistication?

Indoubil (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the potential impact of code-switching on language change?

It can introduce new language forms and contribute to language change. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Why might a speaker switch codes to quote a proverb?

Because proverbs are more authentic in the original language. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In which type of community is code-switching viewed more positively?

Multilingual communities where language mixing is the norm. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is one criticism of the term 'code-mixing'?

It implies incompetence or lack of fluency. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How might code-switching enhance rhetorical skills?

By allowing speakers to draw on the associations of different codes. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In the concept of 'functional differentiation of languages,' what does 'complementary distribution' mean?

Each language or variety is used for specific, non-overlapping functions. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What role does 'age' play in the choice of code?

Younger speakers might use different codes to express modern identities. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In bilingual education, why is code-switching a point of contention?

Some believe it hinders language learning and proficiency. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which dimension can help distinguish between High (H) and Low (L) varieties?

Formality (D) Signup and view all the answers

How does the term 'domain' help in understanding language choice?

It groups typical interactions by participants, settings, and topics to understand general patterns. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason why domain-based models may need modification?

They cannot capture the complexity of individual interactions. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How can code-switching contribute to constructing social identities dynamically?

By allowing speakers to negotiate and express different facets of their identities in interaction. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In which situation is 'polyglossia' most accurately applied?

A community where multiple languages have distinct and complementary functions. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is one key difference between 'code-switching' and 'lexical borrowing'?

Lexical borrowing typically involves single words adapted to the borrowing language. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What does 'social role' refer to in influencing code choice?

The societal position or relationship between participants. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Why might someone switch codes when a new participant joins a conversation?

To include the new participant by accommodating their language preference. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In what way is code-switching an expression of 'dynamic social identity construction'?

It allows individuals to actively construct and express their identities in interaction. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is one social function of code-switching when used by minority groups in majority language contexts?

To assert their minority identity and solidarity. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does code-switching differ from 'code interference'?

Code interference involves errors, whereas code-switching is intentional. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In what way might code-switching be used as a 'linguistic resource'?

To provide a richer means of expressing ideas and emotions. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'function dimension' in code choice refer to?

The speaker's intention or the communicative purpose of the interaction. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In what context is the term 'macro-level sociolinguistic patterns' used?

To describe large-scale language patterns and norms within communities. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In contrast, what does 'micro-level interaction' focus on?

Individual interactions and language choices. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In diglossic communities, why is the Low (L) variety often not codified?

It is considered unworthy of description. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How might code-switching be viewed in communities where multilingualism is the norm?

It is often seen positively and enhances a speaker's status. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important for a description of language patterns to be modified if it doesn't accurately represent the community?

To ensure that sociolinguistic analyses are reflective of actual language use. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In code-switching research, what does the term 'style' refer to?

The level of formality in language use. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason why code-switching is difficult to predict?

It depends on the speaker's intent and the flow of the conversation. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'speech event'?

An interaction considered in terms of the code used. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What might be a reason for code-switching in Internet chat rooms among Swiss Germans?

To indicate attitudes or stances toward messages. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How can code-switching function in humorous contexts?

By adding linguistic contrast that enhances humor. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between diglossia and bilingualism?

Diglossia refers to societies, while bilingualism refers to individuals. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Why is predicting code-switching challenging?

Due to the complex interplay of social, contextual, and linguistic factors influencing code choice. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of 'inter-sentential code-switching'?

Changing languages at the end of one sentence and starting a new sentence in another language. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Why is the term 'code-mixing' sometimes considered less appropriate than 'metaphorical switching'?

Because 'code-mixing' implies random mixing without rules. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason sociolinguists are interested in code-switching points within utterances?

To identify potential universal constraints on code-switching. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does 'language proficiency' influence code-switching behavior?

Less proficient speakers may switch only at sentence boundaries. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In sociolinguistics, what is the main focus when studying code-switching?

The social meanings and functions behind switching codes. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a situation where two languages are used for different functions in a society, but by largely different groups of people?

Diglossia without bilingualism (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason for code-switching when quoting someone?

To accurately convey the original message (A) Signup and view all the answers

In which country is Luxembourgish considered the Low (L) variety in a triglossic situation?

Luxembourg (D) Signup and view all the answers

In the concept of 'lexical borrowing,' how are the borrowed words typically adapted?

They are adapted to fit the phonological and grammatical system of the borrowing language. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'embedded language' in code-switching?

The language that is inserted into the matrix language. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Why might a bilingual speaker use more than one language when telling a joke?

To enhance the humor through code-switching. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In which of the following situations is the High (H) variety MOST likely to be used?

An official government document. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main characteristics of 'classic' diglossia?

There is a clear functional separation between the two varieties. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Why might code-switching occur more frequently in informal settings?

Speakers feel more comfortable mixing codes among friends. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of sociolinguists studying code-switching?

The social functions and meanings of code-switching. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How can code-switching function as a tool for social positioning among young people?

By aligning themselves with certain social groups or identities. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In Pakistan, Urdu is often used in formal settings. What term best describes this use in the context of diglossia?

The High (H) variety (D) Signup and view all the answers

Why might a bilingual speaker switch to their first language when expressing strong emotions?

They can convey emotions more authentically in their first language. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What influence does 'social distance' have on code choice?

It affects language choice based on familiarity and solidarity. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What role does 'function or goal of the interaction' play in code choice?

It contributes alongside other factors to influence code choice. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In Kalala's interactions, what language does he use when dealing with vendors from other tribal groups?

Kingwana (C) Signup and view all the answers

What term is used to describe a community where more than three languages are regularly used for different purposes?

Polyglossia (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of 'intra-sentential code-switching'?

Mixing words from two languages within a single sentence. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Why might the use of the Low (L) variety increase over time in certain domains?

The Low variety may gradually expand into domains previously reserved for the High variety. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the term 'matrix language frame' (MLF) in code-switching?

It proposes that one language provides the grammatical framework into which elements of another language are inserted. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Luxembourg, why might people have difficulty explaining their code choices?

Their language use is highly integrated, making code choices subconscious. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In which domain is the use of the Low (L) variety least likely?

Formal legal proceedings. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one challenge to identifying universal grammatical constraints on code-switching?

Social and contextual factors vary significantly. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What did the 'language riot' in Athens in 1901 signify?

Opposition to using the Low (L) variety for serious purposes. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How might code-switching serve as an identity marker among minority groups?

By using language features that highlight their ethnic background. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential effect of code-switching on attitudes toward minority languages?

It can contribute to the maintenance and vitality of minority languages. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In multilingual settings, what is one reason speakers might not stick to the language norms?

To challenge or change societal norms. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of code-switching, what does the concept of 'linguistic constraints' refer to?

Grammatical rules that govern where code-switching can occur. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does 'attitude' toward language varieties affect code choice?

Positive attitudes toward a variety may increase its use in more domains. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What social meaning might rapid code-switching convey?

Rhetorical skill and ability to navigate different social identities. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by an individual's linguistic repertoire?

The collection of languages or varieties that a person can use. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of multilingual communities, what does the term 'code' refer to?

A specific language or language variety used in a speech community. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Why might Kalala use standard Swahili when dealing with government officials?

Because standard Swahili is the language used for official transactions. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a factor influencing code choice in multilingual communities?

Weather (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the main language used by 'Anahina at home with her family?

Tongan (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'domain' in the study of language use?

Typical interactions involving typical participants in typical settings. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In Paraguay, which language is generally used for formal interactions and education?

Spanish (A) Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'diglossia' refer to in sociolinguistics?

A situation where two distinct varieties of the same language are used in a community. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which variety in a diglossic situation is typically used for everyday conversation?

The Low (L) variety (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the usual attitude of speakers towards the High (H) variety in a diglossic situation?

They admire and respect it. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of code-switching, what does 'situational switching' refer to?

Switching codes due to a change in the social situation. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of 'metaphorical switching'?

Rapidly switching codes for rhetorical effect. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is 'lexical borrowing' in sociolinguistics?

Borrowing words from another language due to lack of vocabulary. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about code-switching?

It can be used to express solidarity or identity. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In a diglossic community, how is the High (H) variety typically learned?

Through formal education. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is 'polyglossia'?

A situation where multiple languages or varieties are used for distinct purposes. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which social factor may influence code choice within the same domain?

Addressee or participant features. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In Kalala's linguistic repertoire, which code is used among young people regardless of ethnic background?

Indoubil (D) Signup and view all the answers

Why might someone switch codes to express anger or disapproval?

To distance themselves and emphasize authority. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is 'tag switching'?

Using interjections or tags from another language as identity markers. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'matrix language' in code-switching?

The language that provides the grammatical structure in a mixed utterance. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Why might code-switching be frowned upon in some societies?

Due to negative attitudes influenced by monolingual perspectives. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of diglossia, what is often the status of literature written in the Low (L) variety?

It is usually nonexistent or minimal. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of 'lexical need' in borrowing?

Borrowing words for concepts that lack equivalents in the speaker's language. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does the speaker in Example 18 use code-switching?

To express different aspects of identity. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Why might a person switch to a language they are less proficient in?

As a sign of respect or solidarity with the addressee. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'fused lect'?

A distinct conversational style resulting from code-switching. (B) Signup and view all the answers

In which situation is code-switching unlikely to occur?

In formal settings where one language is expected. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What role does topic play in code-switching?

Certain topics are associated with specific languages. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In multilingual communities, why is a domain-based approach sometimes limited?

It doesn't account for the influence of individual social factors. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is 'emblematic switching'?

Using brief phrases from another language as identity markers. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which language is considered the Low (L) variety in Haiti?

Haitian Creole (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of diglossia?

The Low variety is used in formal settings. (A) Signup and view all the answers

How is code-switching used to express social distance?

By using a language associated with authority or formality. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is 'situational code-switching'?

Changing languages to fit the conversation's social situation. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'inter-sentential switching' mean?

Switching languages between sentences. (A) Signup and view all the answers

In which code does Kalala listen to pop music?

Lingala (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason speakers might code-switch to add emphasis?

The switched language carries stronger emotional or cultural associations. (C) Signup and view all the answers

In Example 16, what triggers the father's code-switching?

He is reprimanding his son and wants to express authority. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the 'equivalence constraint' in code-switching?

Switches occur only at points where the grammars of both languages align. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How does 'metaphorical switching' differ from 'situational switching'?

Metaphorical switching enriches communication with symbolic meanings. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one possible social reason for code-switching?

To signal group membership and shared identity. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is "interference" in the context of bilingual language use?

Errors in language use due to influence from another language. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is a "linguistic repertoire"?

B. A collection of all the language varieties or codes that a person can use. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Linguistic Repertoire

An individual's linguistic repertoire encompasses all the language varieties or codes that can be used in various contexts.

Code in Multilingual Communities

The term "code" signifies a specific language or language variety employed within a speech community.

Official Language Use

Kalala utilizes standard Swahili when engaging with government officials as it is the recognized language for official transactions in Bukavu.

Factors Influencing Code Choice

Code choice is influenced by participants, setting, and topic; however, weather does not play a role.

Family Language Use

'Anahina primarily speaks Tongan at home when communicating with her family.

Domain of Language Use

A "domain" refers to typical interactions with typical participants in typical settings, allowing for a nuanced understanding of language use.

Language in Paraguay

Spanish is predominantly used for formal interactions and education in Paraguay, while Guaraní is used informally.

Concept of Diglossia

Diglossia describes a scenario where two distinct varieties of the same language are used within a community, each serving different functions.

Everyday Conversation in Diglossia

In diglossic situations, the Low (L) variety is typically employed for everyday conversations, whereas the High (H) variety is reserved for formal contexts.

Attitude Towards High Variety

Speakers tend to admire and respect the High (H) variety, recognizing it as prestigious.

Situational Switching

Situational switching is the practice of changing codes due to a shift in the social situation, such as a new participant joining.

Metaphorical Switching

Metaphorical switching is characterized by rapidly changing codes to enhance communication and create rhetorical effects.

Lexical Borrowing

Lexical borrowing involves using words from another language due to an absence of equivalent vocabulary in the speaker's own language.

Code-Switching Dynamics

Code-switching can indicate group membership and identity, often used to express solidarity among speakers.

Learning High Variety

The High (H) variety is typically acquired through formal education, rather than naturally at home.

Polyglossia

Polyglossia refers to the coexistence of multiple languages or varieties used for distinct purposes within a community.

Participant characteristics, such as the address or features of those involved, can shape code choice within the same domain.

Indoubil Usage

Indoubil is a code employed by young people in Bukavu, transcending ethnic backgrounds, and functions similarly to slang.

Code-Switching for Emphasis

Speakers may switch codes to express disapproval or anger as a means of distancing themselves and emphasizing their authority.

Tag Switching

Tag switching involves inserting tags or interjections from another language, often used to signal ethnic identity.

Matrix Language

In code-switching, the matrix language provides the grammatical framework into which elements of another language blend.

Attitudes Toward Code-Switching

Negative perceptions of code-switching might arise from monolingual biases that deem the mixing of languages as unfavorable.

Literature in Diglossia

Literature is predominantly written in the High (H) variety, with minimal or even nonexistent compositions in the Low (L) variety.

Lexical Need in Borrowing

Lexical need drives speakers to borrow terms when seeking to express concepts that lack equivalents in their native language.

Code-Switching in Expression

Code-switching may be utilized to convey different facets of identity, highlighting ambivalence and emotional nuance.

Reasons for Using Less Proficient Languages

A speaker may opt for a less proficient language to demonstrate respect or solidarity toward the listener.

Fused Lect

A fused lect results from a unique conversational style among bilinguals, created through code-switching.

Code-Switching in Formal Settings

Code-switching is less probable in formal environments where adherence to a single expected language is mandatory.

Role of Topic in Code-Switching

Specific topics may prompt language switches, as they are more aptly discussed in a chosen language.

Limitations of Domain-Based Approach

A domain-based approach might not fully address individual social factors influencing language choice.

Emblematic Switching

Emblematic switching entails the use of brief phrases from another language that signal ethnic identity or solidarity.

Low (L) Variety in Haiti

Haitian Creole is recognized as the Low (L) variety in Haiti, while French is the High (H) variety.

Characteristics of Diglossia

Diglossia includes two unique varieties of the same language, each utilizing distinct functions, with the High variety often reserved for formal contexts.

Switching to a recognized formal language fosters social distance and authority in communication.

Situational Code-Switching

Situational code-switching requires altering languages to align with the social context of an interaction.

Inter-Sentential Switching

Inter-sentential switching involves alternating languages between separate sentences, rather than within a single sentence.

Kalala's Music Preference

Kalala listens to pop music in Lingala, despite lacking fluency in the language.

Emphasis through Code-Switching

Code-switching to a language with stronger emotional or cultural ties can amplify the emphasis of a message.

Triggers for Code-Switching

A father's authority in reprimanding his son can trigger code-switching to a more formal language.

Equivalence Constraint in Code-Switching

The equivalence constraint reveals that code-switching typically occurs where the grammatical structures of both languages align.

Metaphorical vs. Situational Switching

Metaphorical switching is distinct in its use for rhetorical effects, drawing on symbolic meanings rather than situational prompts.

Code-switching can reinforce social bonds by signaling group membership and shared identity.

Status of Low (L) Variety

The Low (L) variety often remains uncodified due to perceptions of being unworthy of formal description compared to the High (H) variety.

Perspectives on Code-Switching

In multilingual communities, code-switching is often viewed positively, potentially elevating a speaker's social standing.

Predictability of Code-Switching

The unpredictability of code-switching stems from the speaker's intent and the conversational context rather than explicit language rules.

Speech Event Definition

A speech event is understood as an interaction evaluated in terms of the code utilized during that interaction.### Bilingualism and Diglossia
Bilingualism refers to individual ability to use two languages, while diglossia describes societal language use.
Diglossia without bilingualism means languages serve different societal functions with largely monolingual speakers.

Code-Switching

Inter-sentential code-switching occurs when languages switch at the end of a sentence, while intra-sentential occurs within a single sentence.
Sociolinguists study social meanings and functions of code-switching rather than just grammatical rules.
Code-switching can accurately convey quotes by switching to the original language.

Variants in Language Use

The High (H) variety is used in formal contexts (e.g. official documents), whereas the Low (L) variety is used in everyday conversation.
Lexical borrowing involves adapting borrowed words to fit the phonological and grammatical system of the borrowing language.

Language and Identity

Code-switching serves as an identity marker, allowing speakers to align with social groups or express ethnic identities.
Social distance influences code choice, affecting language based on familiarity and solidarity.
In multilingual settings, speakers may deviate from language norms to challenge societal expectations.

Language Attitudes and Effects

Positive attitudes toward a language variety may increase its use across different contexts.
Code-switching can contribute to maintaining minority languages, enhancing their vitality rather than leading to language loss.

Conduct and Context

Leakage refers to language use from one domain appearing in another, affecting communication.
Social factors, including participants and topics of conversation, are more influential in code choice than physical conditions like weather.

Language Change and Evolution

Code-switching can introduce new forms into languages, contributing to language change over time.
Unconscious code-switching can occur when switching languages becomes a natural part of speech patterns.

Modernity and Sophistication

In certain communities, specific languages (e.g., Indoubil in Bukavu) are used by young people to express modernity and sophistication, distancing from traditional languages.### Language and Cultural Significance
Quoting proverbs in their original language adds authenticity and retains cultural significance, often diminished in translation.

Code-Switching Perspectives

Code-switching is viewed positively in multilingual communities where blending languages is common; negative in monolingual societies.
Critique of "code-mixing": Suggested incompetence or lack of fluency; does not accurately depict bilingual speech.
It enhances rhetorical ability by allowing speakers to draw on varying social meanings through different languages.

Functional Differentiation of Languages

Complementary distribution suggests each language is used for specific, non-overlapping functions in communication.
Age differences influence code choice; younger individuals may adopt specific codes for modern identity expression.

Code-Switching in Education

Code-switching debates center on its potential hindrance to language learning, with some arguing it compromises proficiency.

High (H) vs. Low (L) Varieties

Formality distinguishes High (H) from Low (L) varieties in diglossic communities, reflecting language context.
Domain concept helps in understanding language choice by grouping interactions based on participants, settings, and topics.

Language Models and Complexity

Domain-based models may need adjustment to reflect the intricate nature of language use in specific interactions.
Code-switching allows for dynamic identity construction, enabling speakers to express various identity facets spontaneously.