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Questions and Answers

What initiates the activation of the fibrinolytic cascade?

Injury to blood vessels

Activation of thrombin

Washout of coagulation factors (correct)

Platelet contraction

Which of the following statements correctly describes the function of plasmin?

It enhances platelet aggregation.

It digests fibrin and cleans up clots. (correct)

It initiates the coagulation cascade.

It converts fibrinogen to fibrin.

Which factor is primarily involved in vitamin K deficiency?

Factor II (correct)

Factor VIII

Factor IX

Factor X

What is the common cause of thrombocytopenia?

Hypersplenism Signup and view all the answers

What does the International Normalized Ratio (INR) indicate?

The risk of excessive bleeding. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)?

Widespread coagulation in small blood vessels. Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the release of heparin by basophils and mast cells?

IgE binding Signup and view all the answers

Which component is responsible for shielding tissues from pro-coagulant signals?

Endothelial cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the life span of circulating granulocytes?

4-8 hours Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of thrombomodulin?

Competing with thrombin to inhibit coagulation Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of dendritic cells in the immune system?

Link the innate and adaptive immune responses Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the relationship between MHC proteins and T cells?

MHC-I proteins are presented to cytotoxic T cells by any cell Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the clonal expansion of lymphocytes?

Contact with its specific antigen Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the immune system is primarily responsible for the release of histamine during an allergic reaction?

Mast cells activated by IgE Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary outcome of immunological memory in the adaptive immune response?

More efficient recognition of previously encountered antigens Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about B cells is correct?

They can both serve as antigen receptors and secrete antibodies Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the complement system in immune response?

It can amplify the immune response through a cascading series of proteins Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism is employed by natural killer (NK) cells to eliminate target cells?

Induce infected cells to undergo apoptosis Signup and view all the answers

What are epitopes in the context of adaptive immunity?

Unique structures on antigens recognized by immune cells Signup and view all the answers

What role do antigen-presenting cells (APCs) play in the activation of T cells?

They present antigens in conjunction with MHC-II molecules to helper T cells Signup and view all the answers

What role do basophils and mast cells play in the immune response?

They release histamine and other chemicals during an allergic reaction. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of leukopenia?

Low white blood cell count resulting from bone marrow failure. Signup and view all the answers

Which immune response is primarily activated by the presence of PAMPs on pathogens?

Both innate and adaptive immune responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in phagocytes?

To kill pathogens through oxidative damage. Signup and view all the answers

How do neutrophils respond when encountering pathogens too large to ingest?

They eject chromatin to form a neutrophil extracellular trap (NET). Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the complement system acts as an opsonin?

C3b Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the activation of the complement system?

The binding of antibodies to their specific antigens. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary significance of interferon-alpha and -beta in viral infections?

They promote apoptosis in infected cells. Signup and view all the answers

Which cells are described as typically being the first responders to infection?

Neutrophils. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of defensins in the immune system?

They disrupt the membranes of pathogens. Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of gastric secretion is primarily initiated by the sight or smell of food?

Cephalic phase Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism is primarily responsible for the secretion of HCl by gastric parietal cells?

H/K pump transporting H ions out Signup and view all the answers

What type of muscle contractions are seen in the large intestine during the mixing of feces?

Segmental contractions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors decreases gastric emptying?

Increased pylorus tone Signup and view all the answers

Which type of action potential is characterized by variable amplitude and happens at fixed frequency in GI smooth muscle?

Slow waves Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the gastrocolic reflex?

To stimulate colon motility after eating Signup and view all the answers

In which phase of swallowing does the action become involuntary?

Pharyngeal phase Signup and view all the answers

What triggers enterogastric reflex to lower gastric emptying?

Presence of fat, acid, or protein in the intestine Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cells in the pancreas produce secretin?

S cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of acetylcholine on gastrointestinal smooth muscle?

Stimulates contractions Signup and view all the answers

What is the major gastric secretion that activates pepsinogen into pepsin?

Hydrochloric acid Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'antral pump' refer to in gastric motility?

The contraction of the caudad area mixing food with gastric juices Signup and view all the answers

What causes the mass movements in the colon?

Propulsive contractions in response to luminal distension Signup and view all the answers

Which white blood cell type primarily functions as the first responder to an infection?

Neutrophils Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of dendritic cells in the immune response?

Bridge innate and adaptive immunity Signup and view all the answers

What does the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) II primarily do?

Presents antigens to T-helper cells Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is primarily responsible for regulating erythrocyte production?

Erythropoietin Signup and view all the answers

What type of anemia is characterized by the inability to absorb vitamin B12?

Pernicious anemia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors contribute to the phenomenon of increased cardiac output in anemia?

Increased heart rate Signup and view all the answers

What is the final step in the clotting process during secondary hemostasis?

Conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin Signup and view all the answers

Which pathway initiates blood coagulation in response to tissue injury?

Extrinsic pathway Signup and view all the answers

What happens to red blood cells after they reach the end of their lifecycle in approximately 120 days?

They are recycled in the spleen or liver. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of basophils in the immune system?

Histamine release during allergic reactions Signup and view all the answers

What might cause an increase in erythropoietin production?

Chronic hypoxia Signup and view all the answers

Which component primarily mediates vascular constriction during hemostasis?

Thromboxane A2 Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of polycythemia vera?

Increased blood viscosity and hypercoagulopathy Signup and view all the answers

What indicates that a substance is not filtered or is filtered and reabsorbed when comparing its clearance to inulin clearance?

Clearance ratio lower than 1 Signup and view all the answers

Which factor primarily influences the regulation of GFR through net filtration pressure?

Colloid osmotic pressure in capillaries Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism promotes vasoconstriction in response to increased renal blood flow?

Macula densa feedback Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of aldosterone in the renal system?

Promote sodium and water reabsorption Signup and view all the answers

What happens to GFR when there is increased hydrostatic pressure in Bowman's capsule?

GFR decreases Signup and view all the answers

Which substance is known to be freely filtered and serves as an accurate marker for GFR measurement?

Inulin Signup and view all the answers

What physiological effect does atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) have on renal blood flow?

Increases renal blood flow and GFR Signup and view all the answers

What defines the 'transport maximum' in the context of renal physiology?

The threshold at which a substance begins to be excreted Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism allows secondary active transport of glucose and amino acids within the nephron?

Coupling with sodium transport Signup and view all the answers

The concentrating ability of the renal medulla relies on which gradient?

Corticopapillary osmotic gradient Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of angiotensin II on renal function at low levels?

Increased GFR and decreased RBF Signup and view all the answers

In situations of low blood pressure, which mechanism does the body utilize to maintain renal function?

Renal neurohormonal regulation Signup and view all the answers

Which cells in the collecting ducts are involved in acid-base regulation?

Intercalated cells Signup and view all the answers

How does nitric oxide affect renal blood flow?

Opposes constriction caused by catecholamines Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Blood and Immunity

Neutrophils are the main phagocytes, basophils are involved in allergic reactions, and eosinophils play a role in defense against parasites.
Differences in size and function exist between neutrophils and macrophages.
The innate immune response is the first line of defense. If it is not effective, it stimulates the adaptive response.
Pathogens have molecular patterns (PAMPs); cells (macrophages) have pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). The interaction leads to phagocytosis (engulfing and destruction of pathogens).
Microbe remnants are presented on MHC-II molecules to T-helper cells, which activate cells to eliminate the microbes.
Dendritic cells bridge the innate and adaptive immune systems.
All nucleated cells have MHC-I, and dendritic cells, macrophages, and B lymphocytes have MHC-II.
The complement system, including extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, is part of the immune response.

Blood Cell Types

Blood is composed of various blood cell types originating from the bone marrow.
Granulocytes include neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils.
Monocytes and lymphocytes (B and T cells, NK cells) are also white blood cells (WBCs).
Erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs) are responsible for oxygen transport.

RBCs

No organelles, destroyed by macrophages after 120 days.
Shape and size allow RBCs to move through capillaries.
Hold hemoglobin and carbonic anhydrase.
At 100% saturation, men hold 20mlO2, and women 19ml.
RBC production regulated by erythropoietin (EPO), produced by the kidneys.
Low oxygen levels stimulate EPO production.
Nutritional needs include vitamin B12/folic acid for maturation and DNA synthesis.
Pernicious anemia results from a lack of intrinsic factor, needed to absorb vitamin B12.
Defective iron metabolism causes microcytic-hypochromic anemia.
Macrocytic anemia relates to larger RBCs and normal coloring.

Hemostasis

Hemostasis is the process of stopping blood loss, including vascular constriction, plateletaggregation and coagulation.
Damaged tissue activates the coagulation cascade.
Extrinsic and intrinsic pathways meet at the common pathway which activates prothrombin to thrombin, converting fibrinogen to fibrin.
Thrombin initiates clot retraction and fibrinolysis with plasminogen activation.
Endothelial factors regulate clot formation and dissolution..
Disorders include hemophilia, thrombocytopenia and DIC.

Innate and Adaptive Immunity

The body has mechanisms, including innate and adaptive mechanisms (immune responses, to combat pathogens).
Pathogens and damaged cells trigger a cascade of events to initiate an inflammatory response.
Leukocytes (white blood cells, WBCs) are important in the immune response.
Cytokines and chemokines, prostaglandins and leukotrienes mediate a variety of inflammatory and immune responses.
Phagocytosis, including macrophages and neutrophils help destroy pathogens,
Complement system- A complex system of proteins that enhances the inflammatory response and directly attacks pathogens.

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