5 Themes of Geography & Physical vs. Human Geography

5 Themes of Geography

• Location pertains to relative and absolute positions defined by latitude and longitude.
• Place refers to the distinctive physical and human attributes of an area.
• Human Environment Interaction describes how humans interact with their surroundings.
• Movement involves the mobility of individuals, goods, and ideas, influencing spatial interactions and connectivity.
• Regions are areas exhibiting specific criteria and distinctive characteristics.

Physical Geography

• Focuses on natural science
  • Topography deals with the shape and features of the Earth's surface.
  • Climate (Koppen) refers to long-term weather patterns.
  • Flora and Fauna covers plant and animal life.
  • Soil deals with the composition and properties of earth's surface material.

Human Geography

• Focuses on social science
  • Culture represents the shared values, beliefs, and practices
  • Population covers the characteristics and distribution of people.
  • Economic factors involve the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.
  • Political aspects include government, law, and administration.
  • Urban Agriculture relates to the growing of plants and the raising of animals in and around cities.

4 Forms of Distortion

• Shape of the area can be altered.
• Direction between points may change.
• Distance between points can increase or decrease.
• Relative size of a place may be misrepresented.

Thematic Maps

• Isoline Maps use lines to connect points of equal value, showing data like elevation or barometric pressure.
• Choropleth Maps show data using shading patterns or colors.
• Graduated Symbol Maps use symbols sized proportionally to the intensity of the data.
• Dot Maps use dots to represent the frequency of a data point.
• Cartograms display data by distorting the size of political units.

LACEMOPS

• Latitude: Colder temperatures occur further from the equator, with direct sunlight concentrated between the tropics.

• Air Masses: Cold air originates from the polar regions in the north, while warm air originates from the tropics in the south with opposite patterns in the other hemisphere.

• Continentality: Water regulates climate, so inland areas experience more extreme temperatures.

• Elevation: Temperatures decrease with higher elevation, decreasing 3.5 degrees for each 1,000 ft increase in elevation; high elevation - cold, low elevation - hot.

• Mountain barriers: They create a geographic effect, causing moisture on the windward side and deserts on the leeward side.

• Ocean currents: Cold currents bring dry air (from poles), warm currents bring wet air (pass through equator).

• Pressure cells: High pressure indicates heavy, cold air, and low pressure means warm, light air.

  • Heat rises and cooler air sinks from the equator to 30 degrees; high pressure is at 30 degrees, and low pressure is at 60 degrees.

• Storms: Thunderstorms occur where polar and western lines meet, while hot and cold air masses collide; cyclones spin counterclockwise (northern hemisphere) or clockwise (southern hemisphere).

• High pressure means cold conditions

• Low pressure means hot conditions

• Deserts are dry and high-pressure zones.

• Tropical regions are near the equator and feature low, lousy conditions.

• Women tend to migrate more within a country, while men migrate more between countries.

• Migration volumes increase with commerce and transportation improvements.

• The prevailing migration pattern is rural to urban.

• Economic factors are the leading cause of migration.

Map Projections

• Goode's interrupted/homolosine equal minimizes distortion by interrupting the map, particularly in Antarctica and the oceans.
• Conic projection maintains accurate distances and directions but is best suited for relatively small zones.
• Planar projection provides accuracy at the central point and shows half the earth at a time.
• Mercator projection distorts land masses but maintains accurate directions and distances, primarily used for sea travel.
• Robinson projection spreads distortion across shape, size, and direction, portrays landforms proportionally, and displays poles as straight, flat lines.
• Gall-peters projection accurately shows land mass sizes, improving geographic relationship representation; however, it distorts distances, shapes, latitude, and longitude.
• Fuller Projection maintains accurate size and shape without cardinal directions.
• Winkel Tripel projection has a rounder shape with distortion near the north and south poles.

Terms for Describing Countries Economically

• Primary countries extract resources.
• Secondary countries refine raw materials into products.
• Tertiary countries provide services.
• Quaternary countries deal in information and management.
• MDC is for most developed countries (e.g., United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Western European countries).
• NIC is for newly developed countries (e.g., China, India, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, South Africa, Turkey, Brazil, Mexico).
• LDC is for least developed countries (e.g., Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi).

Unit 1 Vocabulary

• Cartography: Science of mapmaking.
• Reference maps show geography without political data.
• Map scale indicates the level of detail and area covered.
• Scale is the relationship between a feature's size and its size on a map.
  • Small scale maps show more distribution while zoomed out.
  • Large scale maps show less distribution while zoomed in.
• Scale of analysis examines observational data at global, national, regional, and local levels.
• Scale of inquiry determines the best scale of analysis for a particular topic.
• Absolute distance is quantitative.
• Relative distance is qualitative.
• Clustering measures how close objects are in geographical space.
• Dispersal measures how far objects are spread out.
• Meridians run between the North and South poles.
• Parallels form right angles with meridians.
• Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the master reference time at the prime meridian in Greenwich, England.
• GPS determines absolute mathematical position using satellites.
• GIS is a computer system for layering data.
• Site describes physical characteristics.
• Situation is the location of a place relative to others.
• Formal region is a uniform region with a common trait.
• Functional region is nodal, with characteristics diffusing outward from a center.
• Perceptual region is vernacular, based on people's beliefs.
• Culture encompasses beliefs, values, and materials.
• Archipelago is a chain of islands.
• Spatial distribution describes how something is arranged on earth’s surface.
• Density is the number of times something occurs.
• Concentration is the spread of something in space.
• Pattern is where something occurs.
• Relocation diffusion spreads through physical movement.
• Expansion diffusion spreads a feature additively.
• Hierarchical diffusion spreads through nodes of authority.
• Contagious diffusion spreads rapidly throughout a population.
• Stimulus diffusion spreads an underlying principle, even if the characteristic changes.
• Reverse hierarchical diffusion involves lower class characteristics spreading to higher classes.
• Distance decay is the decrease of an effect over distance.
• Wallerstein's theory:
  • Core countries - North America, West Europe, Japan
  • Peripheral countries - Africa, Asia, Latin America
  • Semi-periphery countries - Argentina, China, Brazil, Mexico, Iran, Indonesia
• International scale of analysis focuses on spatial relations.
• National scale of analysis focuses on economic change.
• Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth: 5 stages.
  • Key vocabulary: mass consumption, drive to maturity, traditional society, take off (stage 3)
• Space-time compression reduces the time it takes to reach another place.
• Pattern is the geometric arrangement of objects.
• Space is the physical gap between objects.
• Flow is the movement of people, ideas, goods, or services.

Pillars of stability

• Environment pillar - Sustainable development values conservation.
• Economy Pillar - Prices of goods reflect environmental costs.
• Society Pillar - Modifying cultural wants for sustainability.
• Environmental determinism suggest physical environment causes development.
• Possibilism indicates people control the environment.
• Weather is the daily atmospheric condition.
• Precipitation is moisture from the sky.
• Climate is average weather over time.
• Qualitative data is opinion-based.
• Census is an official count every 10 years.

Unit 2 Notes

• Half of the population is in:
  • East Asian countries like East China, Japan, Koreas, or Taiwan.
  • South Asian countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, or Sri Lanka.
  • Southeast Asian countries like Indonesia, Islands of Java, Philippines, or Malaysia.
  • European countries like Monaco, Germany, or France
• Population clusters are on low-lying areas with fertile soil and temperate climates with ocean/river access.
• Sparsely populated regions include dry/wet/cold/high lands like the Sahara and Amazon rainforest.

Demographic Transition Model (DMT)

• Stage 1: Low growth, high birth/death rates, no long-term natural increase.
• Stage 2: High growth, rapidly declining death rates, high birth rates, high natural increase.
  • Europe and North America entered stage 2 due to the Industrial Revolution (1750); Africa, Asia, Latin America entered stage 2 in 1950 due to the medical revolution.
• Stage 3: Moderate growth, rapid decline in birth rates, steady decline in death rates, moderate natural increase.
  • Most European countries and North America transitioned to stage 3 during the first half of the twentieth century.
• Stage 4: Low growth, very low birth/death rates, no long-term increase, possible population decrease (ZPG).
  • Zero population growth (ZPG) results from immigration.
• Possible Stage 5: Decline, low CBR, increasing CDR, more elderly than young, negative NIR (no increase in population).

Epidemiologic Transition Model (ETM)

• Stage 1: High CDR due to pestilence and famine.
• Stage 2: Receding pandemics with rapidly declining CDR due to industrial revolution improvements.
• Stage 3: Moderately declining CDP due to degenerative diseases.
• Stage 4: Low but increasing CDR due to delayed degenerative diseases.
• Possible stage 5: Viruses evolve resistance, causing disease in poverty, spreading through transportation, varying healthcare.

Healthcare systems..

• Developed countries: Public service available for little to no cost; government pays for 70%.
• Developing countries: Individuals pay over 50%, except in the US, where individuals pay 55%.
• Improving education and healthcare contributes to declining birth rates.
• Contraception can go against religious/cultural beliefs.

Types of Population Policies:

• Pro-natalist/expansive policies encourage births.
• Anti-natalist/restrictive discourage births
  • Ex: Chinese had the Later, Longer, Fewer policy and the one child policy

Eleven Laws of Migration:

• Most migrants go a short distance.
• Migration proceeds step by step.
• Migrants going long distance prefer big cities.
• Each migration stream produces a compensating counter stream.
• Rural people are more migratory than urban.
• Women migrate more within a country, men more between countries.
• Most migrants are adults.
• Large cities grow more by migration than natural increase.
• Migration increases in volumes as commerce develops and transportation improve.
• The major stream of migration is rural to urban.
• The major cause of migration is economic.

3 Main Eras of US Immigration:

• Colonial settlement in the 17th and 18th centuries brought people from Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa.
• Mass European immigration occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Asian and Latin American migration has occurred during the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
• Countries with the largest land areas: Russia, Canada, China, US, Brazil.

United Nations High Commissions for Refugees recognizes three groups of forced political migrants:

• A refugee migrates to avoid a potential threat to life; cannot return for fear of persecution.

• An internally displaced person (IDP) is similar to a refugee but has not migrated across an international border.

• An asylum seeker is looking to be a refugee of another country.

• Ecumene: Places of permanent human settlement, only little of the world, 5000 BC to 1900.

• Colonialism - An endeavor by one country to ascertain settlements and to impose its political, economical, and cultural principles in another territory.

• Imperialism - Effort by one country to determine settlements and to impose its political, economic and cultural principles on such territory.

• Carrying capacity is the number of individuals an environment can support.

• Agricultural density is the ratio of farmers to arable land.

• Arithmetic density is the total number of objects in an area.

• Physiological density is the number of people supported by a unit of arable land.

• Crude Birth Rate (CBR) is the total number of live births per 1,000.

• Crude Death Rate (CDR) is the total number of deaths per 1,000 people.

• Natural Increase Rate (NIR) is CBR-CDR-NIR; the average current NIR is 1.2%.

• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is the annual number of infant deaths per 1,000.

• Total Rate (TFR) is the average number of kids a lady will have.

• Life expectancy is the average number of years a baby will live.

• Doubling time is the time for a population to double.

• Dependency ratio counts individuals too old or young to work.

• Sex ratio measures males per 100 females.

• Malthus’(Malthusian) theory states population grows geometrically, food supply arithmetically.

• Neo-malthusians believe earth's resources can support only a finite population.

• GDP per capita measures a country's economic output per person.

• Immigration is a permanent move to a different place.

• Emigration is leaving a permanent area.

• Migration is a temporary (possibly permanent) move. First reason is to search out jobs

• Intervening obstacle stops migration.

• Intervening opportunity causes someone to prevent migrating.

• Critical distance is beyond a person's willingness to travel.

• Minority-majority means minorities add up to be greater than majority.

• Gravity model: Greater pull in larger communities, bigger cities receive more immigrants.

• Step migration occurs gradually.

• Chain migration involves legal immigrants sponsoring relatives.

• Intraregional migration occurs within one region.

• Xenophobia is hatred of foreigners.

• Counterurbanization is prevalent in places with natural amenities.

• Ethnocentrism judges another culture using one's own standards.

• Interregional migration means movment from one region to a different region within the same country

• Russia encouraged interregional migration. The government built new factores and has other economic incentives for the current population to move.

• Canada and the U.S. share an identical east to west interregional migration pattern with the U.S. Three westernmost provinces are destinations for interregional migrants.

• China saw around 100 million people emigrate across the urban coast of China

• The brazilian government moved its captial from Rio to Brasilia to encourage migration away from the coast

• Remittances are Money earned by immigrants to send back home.

• Brain drain is the Loss of skilled educated workers.

• A large number of refugees come from Asia and Africa.

• Congress passed the Quota Act in 1921 and the National Origins Act in 1924 to restrict immigration to the U.S.

• During the Great Migration, many Africans migrated to escape discrimination.

• Rust Belt went into decline in the 70’s, located near the Great Lakes.

• Counter migration involves Ex: United States citizens move to Mexico.

Unit 3 Notes

• Folk Culture: Practiced by small, isolated groups sharing the same culture.
  • It diffuses slowly and primarily through relocation diffusion.
  • Local physical and cultural factors greatly influence distinctive distributions.
• Popular Culture: Practiced by large, diverse groups exhibiting similar behavior:
  • It diffuses rapidly and extensively from hearths or nodes of innovation with the aid of modern communication through hierarchical diffusion.
  • It is widely distributed across many countries, largely disregarding physical factors.
• Sports originated as isolated folk customs and diffused via relocation diffusion.
  • Transformation from folk to popular sport began in the 1800s when organized clubs were formed in the UK.

Elements of folk and popular music and clothing:

• Folk Music: Originates anonymously and is transmitted orally, with content focusing on life events and environmental features.
• Popular Music: Musicians often have strong or limited connections and is written for sale.
• Folk Clothing Preferences: Style is dictated by agricultural practices and climatic conditions.
• Popular Clothing Preferences: Style reflects occupation or income.
• Eastern walls of houses in Fiji and directions in Madagascar are influenced by religious/customary beliefs.
• Threats to Pop culture - practice of sustainability over many non-uniform landscapes, causes pollution, depletion of natural resources

Threats to folk culture and housing:

• Threats to folk culture include loss of tradition
• Available resources influence the built environment.

Barriers on Diffusion:

• Distance or physical barriers cause slow diffusion.
• Age barriers: Older people are more resistant to new ideas.
• Linguistic barriers: Language differences hinder translation.
• Religious barriers: Religions can have restrictions.
• Political barriers: Governments may censor the internet.
• Folk/local culture: Traditional cultures may reject new influences.
• Social class barriers: Limited access to technology reduces exposure.
• Economic barriers: Updated technology is expensive.
• Regulatory barriers: Import laws may delay diffusion.
• People adapt their food preferences to conditions in the environment.

Language:

• Language is is a vocal system of communication with same meaning. Language contains: - Language Families - ex) Nostralic, austric, sino-caucasian, sino-tibetan, Indo-European, uralic, afro-asiatic, etc. - Language Branches - Indo-iranian, germanic, baltoslavic, romance

Distribution & Classification

• 2/3 of the world speaks a Indo-European or Sino-Tibetan language
• Modern English has evolved from three Germanic tribes invading the British Isles.
  • Angles- from southern Denmark
  • Jutes- from northern Denmark
  • Saxons- from northwestern Germany
• the Proto-Indo European language is germanic, romance, baltoslavic, indo iranian's origin

Theories of Language

• Nomadic Warrior - diffusion through warfare and conquest
• Sedentary Farmer - diffuse through peaceful sharing of food
• US Dialects
  • New england - from english settlers
  • Southeastern - ½ from southeast england

Universalizing religion

• It attempts to appeal to all people, has a known origin and is usually founded by one person
• Roman Catholicism: southwest and east Europe, Latin America
• Protestantism: northwestern Europe and US, North America
• Orthodoxy: eastern and southeastern Europe
• Canada: protestant and catholic
• US: mormons and baptists, North/Midwest US- lutherans
• hierarchical diffusion by emperor constantine in roman empire, relocation diffusion by missionaries and travellers along sea and trade

Ethnic Religion

• it attempts to appeal to one ethnic group living in one place 26% of the world
• Hinduism: 1 billion
• Animism: Inanimate objects or natural events like disasters have spirits, common in Africa.
• Judaism: First abrahamic religion
• Religions follow a founder and specific diffusion patterns and religious diversity can be expressed within a nation or region

Conflicts caused by religion

• the presence of Catholicism and protestatism in northern ireland caused confilcts in the region
• Conflicts in the middle east over jerusalem
• Africans and Hispanics cluster in cities:
  • Chicago - West and south sides have a high percentage of Africans.
  • Los Angeles - Africans are prominent in the south central region. Hispanics are in the east and Asians are in the south and west.
• African migration in US:
  • Interregional migration from the southern United States to northern cities in the early 20th century. - Intraregional migration from inner-city ghettos to outer cities and suburbs in the late 20th century. - Southern Africans experienced Jim Crow Laws

Unit 3 Vocabulary:

• Culture appropriation - What one does should be appropriate in their culture.
• Culture relativism - Judging another culture based on one's own standards.
• Cultural landscape - Imprint of human culture on land.
• Cultural convergence - Two cultures become more similar from frequent interactions.
• Cultural divergence - A culture splits due to a lack of connection.
• Acculturation - Adoption of cultural traits from a larger group while still maintaining the original culture.
• Assimilation - Killing/removal of culture by learning a new culture to replace the previous.
• Habit - Repetitive act of an individual. For example, wearing jeans everyday.
• Post modern architecture - Began 1960s, combines traditional and contemporary architecture.
• Terroir - Contribution of a location's physical features on the way food tastes.
• Guest worker - European and Germany allow temporary international migration.
• Literary tradition - System of written communication.
• Dialects - The regional variation of a language
• Isogloss - Boundary where words/dialect regions can be mapped out.
• Logograms - Symbols which represent words rather than sounds.
• Creole language - Mixing of two or more separate languages
• Multilingual states - States with more than one official language,
• Revived language - One that was previously extinct but brought back to use.
• Lingua franca - Language of international communication.
• branch- branch of language
• denomination - denomination of branch
• sect- small group
• Secularism - Dividing state from church.
• Sense of place - A feeling that an area has a distinct and meaningful character.
• Zionism - Policy for establishing a homeland for Jews in palestine.
• Sharia law - Islamic law
• Interfaith - Relating to or between different religions.
• Intrafaith - Taking place within, or relevant to a single faith community
• Toponym - Something named after culture or landscape
• Syncretism - Blending multiple religions,
• Pilgrimage - Journey for religious purposes
• Utopian settlement - An ideal community that is constructed around a religious life
• Fundamentalism - Literal interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles
• Autonomous region - No central authority
• Sacred sites -
• Race - Categorization of humans based on skin color;
• Minority group - Any recognizable group suffering from discrimination
• Ethnic groups - Racial groups based on culture or ethnicity
• Ethnicity - The identity a group shares based on traditions from their homeland.
• one ethnicity removes another to create a homogeneous region,
• Diaspora - Dispersion of people from their homeland,
• Genocide - extermination
• Apartheid - spereation
• Nationality - legal
• Ethnicity separatism - Autonomy

Unit 4 Notes

• Devolution - the movement of power away from a central government. Common examples of devolution within countries (cultural, economic, spatial).
  • Scotland wants independence from the EU and ownership of oil resources.
  • Spain (the Basque and Catalonia each want their own economic autonomy)
  • Belgium - Flemish (Dutch) in the north and Walloons (French) in the south
  • Czechoslovakia - Velvet Divorce
  • Sudan - Muslim north and Christian south.
  • Sri Lanka - Tamils, Hindu minority fight for independence from the Sinhalese Buddhist majority.
• Shapes of States: States have differeing and unique sizes and shapes.
  • Compact: Efficient, equal distance from center to edge, ideal state shape with capital at center
  • Elongated: Potential isolation, long, poor internal communication, more access to natural resources
  • Prorupted: Success of disruption, compact with large projecting section
  • Perforated: State completely surrounds another
  • Fragmented: Problematic, several discontinuous pieces, seperated by water or other state
  • Landlocked states - Lacks direct outlet to sea
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) - treaty 1982- Nautical mile - 1.15 land miles. - 4 Zones - Territorial sea 12 nautical miles for fishing, innocent passage - Contiguous zone - 24 nautical miles, - Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) - 200 nautical miles, state can explore and manage natural resources - High seas - beyond EEZ, open to all states
• Political Organizations - UN (United nations)
• Military Organizations - NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and Warsaw Pact
• Economic Organizations - EU (European Union), COMECON, ASEAN, OPEC, NAFTA

Unit 4 Vocabulary

• State - political unit.
• Sovereignty - free to be
• Nation - common culture.
• Nation-state - Population is homogeneous,
• Stateless nation - without a state,
• Microstate - Sovereign state with small population
• China - Conflict between whether Taiwan is independent from China or not.
• Western Sahara -
• Self-determination - ethnicities have power
• Satellite states -
• Multi-state nation - stretches the border state
• Multi-ethnic state - more than one nationate
• Multinational state - more than one ethnicity
• Decolonization - Colonial settlements
• Colony - tied state
• Colonialism - politics by another state
• Imperialism - territory
• Ethnonationalism - ethnicity Sovreign
• Morphology - Shape cohesian
• Berlin conference -
• Versailles- peace conference -
• Apartheid - certian race
• cold War 💥 -
• Organic theory - Survive
• Heartland-World
• Rimland - Rim
• Choke point - valley way
• Centripetal forces - hold together,
• Centrifugal forces - tear a state
• State - Formal name ,sovereign
• Democracy - office
• Autocracy - rulers
• Anocracy - mix of 2
• unitary - centralized small,
• Confedaral - less Central
• Federal - middle
• Reapportionment - Assigning
• Redistricting - Draw
• Frontier - Zone state no
• Border conflicts - Resource
• Shaterrbelt
• Physical Boundaries -
• cultural boundaries - Geometric
• Delimited boundary - States
• Antecedent boundary - Result
• Subsequent boundary - Developed
• Open boundary - Boundary people
• Natural boundary - Based
• Militarized boundary - Heavily
• Superimposed boundary - Political
• Relic boundary - Historic
• Defined boundary - Established
• Demarcated boundary - Identified
• Geometric boundary - Straight
• Irredentism -
• Allocational dispute - Disagree