Exam 14 - Lifespan Development

Introduction of Lifespan

• The United States is experiencing a growing interest in health and well-being.
• Factors influencing longevity include health, happiness, avoiding tobacco, and job satisfaction.
• In the early 20th century, life expectancy in the US was 47.3 years.
• Despite improvements, there is room for improvement in life expectancy, particularly in infant mortality rates.
• The infant mortality rate for African Americans is more than double that for white infants, highlighting the need for education and access to healthcare for pregnant women.

Health Promotion Across the Lifespan

• Development is a lifelong process, with middle and late adulthood recognized as crucial stages.
• Development is influenced by a complex interplay of personal behavior, genetics, and the environment.
• Lifespan development studies examine the changes in an individual’s life cycle.
• Lifespan Development is divided into eight stages:
  • Infancy: Birth to 1 year
  • Toddler: 1 to 3 years
  • Preschool: 3 to 5 years
  • School Age: 6 to 12 years
  • Adolescence: 13 to 19 years
  • Early Adulthood: 20 to 40 years
  • Middle Adulthood: 40 to 65 years
  • Late Adulthood: 65 years and over

Growth and Development

• Living beings undergo continuous changes throughout the lifespan, including physical changes (cell, tissue, and fluid replacement) and other changes (cognition, communication, emotions, behavior, and feelings).
• Principles of growth and development include:
• Highly individualized growth rates.
• Continuous and interdependent processes with periods of growth and rest.
• Progression from simple to complex using a predictable sequence of changes.
• Varied growth rates among different body structures.
• Holistic development encompassing physical, social, mental, and emotional growth.

Patterns of Growth

• Growth patterns are primarily controlled by genetics.
• Nutrition, heredity, and environment also play a significant role in shaping growth patterns.
• Chromosomes, threadlike structures within cell nuclei, contain the blueprint for inherited traits.
• At conception, an individual inherits potential for characteristics such as height, skin and eye color, and talents.
• Development begins at conception (fertilization) when genetic material from each parent combines.
• After fertilization, the zygote (developing ovum) contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total).
• The sex chromosomes determine gender:
  • The ovum carries an X chromosome.
  • The sperm can carry either an X or Y chromosome.
  • A Y chromosome in the sperm results in a male, while an X chromosome results in a female.
• Environmental factors can contribute to developmental abnormalities in the unborn.
• A teratogen is a substance or agent that interferes with normal prenatal development, causing developmental abnormalities in the fetus.
• Genetic testing provides prospective parents with information about their carrier status for certain inherited diseases.

Family

• The family is the fundamental unit of society.
• Families consist of two or more individuals united by marriage, blood, adoption, relationships, and social roles.
• Family members share emotional ties that often endure throughout their lives.
• Family roles and lifestyles have evolved to address societal needs.
• Basic family functions include protection, nurturance, education, sustenance, and socialization.
• Family types include:
  • Nuclear: Married couple with their children living independently.
  • Extended: Nuclear family + additional family members sharing a household.
  • Single-parent: One adult fulfilling the roles of two parents.
  • Blended: Adults from previous marriages remarrying and combining children.
  • Social Contract/Cohabitation: Unmarried individuals living together with shared responsibilities.
  • Homosexual: Homosexual partners living with shared responsibilities.
  • Transgender: Including one or more parents who have had a gender reassignment or are gender nonconforming.
  • Adoptive: Traditional nuclear family including adoptive children.
  • Grandfamilies: Households where children live with their grandparents, with or without parental involvement.
  • Foster: Families providing care, supervision, and nurturing for children in their charge.

Family Patterns

• Family patterns refer to the ways in which family members interact.
• Family patterns include:
  • Autocratic: Unequal relationships with strict rules and limited outside influence.
  • Patriarchal: Male dominance in work, finance, and decision making.
  • Matriarchal (matrifocal): Female dominance in childcare, homemaking, and financial decision making.
  • Democratic: Adults as equals, children treated with respect, favoring joint decision making and individual expression.

Stages of Family Development

• Engagement/Commitment Stage: When a couple acknowledges their intention to marry.
• Establishment Stage: From marriage to the birth of the first child, focusing on adaptation to marriage and interdependence.
• Expectant Stage: Marked by conception and pregnancy, involving physical and psychological adjustments for the parents.
• Parenthood Stage: Beginning at the birth or adoption of the first child.
• Disengagement Stage: When children leave the home after growing up.
• Senescence Stage: The final life cycle stage, requiring adaptation to numerous changes.

Causes of Family Stress

• Various stressors affect families, including chronic illness, abuse, and divorce.
• Stress can impact individuals of all ages, including children.
• Child stress can arise from internal or external pressures.
• Signs of child stress include mood swings, acting-out behavior, changes in eating/sleeping patterns, unexplained physical symptoms, clinginess, thumb-sucking, bedwetting, and regression to earlier behaviors.
• Chronic Illness: Affects all family members and is influenced by factors like finances, stability, and support systems.
• Working Mothers: Becoming increasingly common, creating role models for children and raising questions about childcare arrangements.
• Abuse: Including physical, emotional, financial, verbal abuse, sexual assault, and neglect.
• Child abuse impacts approximately 700,000 children annually in the United States.
• Risk factors for abuse include financial strain, social isolation, low self-esteem, and a history of abuse.
• Parents who abuse children often experienced abuse themselves, are socially isolated, have unreasonable expectations, and lack self-control.
• Divorce: Impacts over 1 million children annually and can significantly affect children's emotional, familial, financial, and social lives.

Psychosocial Development: Erik Erikson's Theory

• Erik Erikson proposed a theory of psychosocial development, suggesting that life consists of a series of stages, each with a developmental task or challenge.
• Erikson's stages include:
• Infancy (birth to 1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust - Infants learn to trust or mistrust caregivers based on their ability to meet their needs.
• Toddler (1-3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt - Toddlers develop a sense of self-sufficiency or shame and doubt based on their experiences with independence.
• Preschool (4-6 years): Initiative vs. Guilt - Preschoolers explore the world and take initiative, but may feel guilty if their actions exceed boundaries set by parents.
• School Age (7-11 years): Industry vs. Inferiority - Children learn to feel competent and productive in skills and activities or may feel inferior and inadequate.
• Adolescence (12-19 years): Identity vs. Role Confusion - Adolescents explore their personal identities, including sexual, ethnic, and career identities, or become confused about their future roles.
• Young Adulthood (20-40 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young adults seek companionship and love or become isolated from others.
• Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years): Generativity vs. Stagnation - Middle-aged adults strive for productivity and meaningful work or feel stagnant and inactive.
• Late Adulthood (65+): Ego Integrity vs. Despair - Older adults reflect on their lives, finding meaning or despairing about unrealized goals and unanswered questions.

Cognitive and Intellectual Development: Jean Piaget's Theory

• Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development, suggesting that children's thinking progresses through distinct stages.
• Piaget's stages include:
  • Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years): Infants use senses and motor skills to understand the world, developing object permanence, mental representation, and goal-directed behavior.
  • Preoperational (2 to 7 years): Children develop egocentric thinking, symbolic representation, intuitive thought, and begin to decenter.
  • Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years): Children develop logical reasoning, conservation, classification skills, and understand cause-and-effect relationships.
  • Formal Operational (12+ years): Adolescents and adults develop abstract thinking, hypothetical reasoning, scientific problem-solving, and an understanding of ethics and social issues.

Language and Speech Development

• Humans are born with an innate ability to learn language.
• Infants start babbling at 3 months old, exploring all possible sounds.
• By 1 year old, infants recognize words, learning to use one-word sentences called holophrases.
• Preschoolers experience a language explosion, developing a vocabulary of 8,000 to 14,000 words by age 6.
• The average child learns 6-10 new words every day between age 2 and 6.
• Speech development involves the respiratory system, speech control centers in the brain, mouth and nasal cavities, a discriminating hearing ability, and learning to communicate.

Infancy (1 to 12 Months)

• Infants grow rapidly during the first 6 months, doubling their birth weight by 4-6 months and tripling it by age 1.
• Infants gain about 1.5 pounds per month for the first 5 months.
• They grow 1 inch per month for the first 6 months, increasing their birth length by about 50% by 12 months.
• Vital signs like heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure change as the infant develops.
• Teething usually starts at 5-6 months, with signs appearing 3-4 weeks before the first tooth emerges.
• By 2 months, infants can hold their heads up while on their stomach.
• By 4 months, they can hold their head up steadily to a 90-degree angle.
• Infants develop various forms of movement including crawling, creeping, standing with support, and walking.

Infancy (1 to 12 Months) Psychosocial and Cognitive Development

• Erikson's theory suggests that the primary task of infancy is to establish a sense of basic trust versus mistrust.
• The responsiveness of caregivers to the infant's needs helps build trust.
• During infancy, infants learn about the world through their senses, exploring and interacting with their environment.
• Piaget's sensorimotor stage describes how infants learn through sensory input and motor activities.
• Infants start showing different responses to familiar caregivers compared to strangers by 3 months.
• Fear of strangers and separation anxiety often develop by 8-9 months.

Infancy (1 to 12 Months) Health Promotion

• Breast milk and formula are the primary sources of nutrition for babies until 4-6 months.
• Iron supplements or iron-rich foods should be introduced after 5-6 months.
• New foods should be introduced one at a time with several days between each to assess for allergies.
• New foods should be introduced in this order: cereals, fruits and vegetables, and lastly meat.
• Water intake needs to be monitored to prevent dehydration or water intoxication.
• Weaning should begin around 9 months, gradually replacing bottles with cups.
• Infants sleep 18 hours a day at birth, decreasing to 12 hours at night and one nap during the day by age 1.
• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is a concern, often appearing 2-3 months after birth.
• Play is important for learning, with sensorimotor play encouraging sensory exploration and motor development.
• Solitary play is common during infancy, meaning the infant plays alone without interacting with others.

Toddler (1 to 3 Years)

• Toddler growth is slower than in infancy but follows the same pattern, with a more proportionate body shape.
• The toddler stage involves developing gross motor skills like walking, climbing stairs, and hopping.
• Fine motor skills start to emerge, including scribbling, copying a circle, and using utensils.
• Toilet training can begin between 18 and 24 months once the toddler is physically and psychologically ready.

Toddler (1 to 3 Years) Psychosocial and Cognitive Development

• Toddlers are energetic and seek attention, approval, and achievement of personal goals.
• They struggle with balancing autonomy and shame and doubt, often needing routines and rituals for security.
• Temper tantrums are common due to frustration and their developing communication skills.
• Toddlers start to understand basic language and can express simple wishes and needs.
• Their cognitive and social development influences their communication abilities.
• Vocabulary expands from 450 words at 2 1/2 years to 900 words at 3 1/2 years.
• Reading to toddlers significantly increases their vocabulary development.

Toddler (1 to 3 Years) Health Promotion

• A balanced diet including meat, vegetables, fruit, cereal, bread, and dairy is essential for toddlers.
• Gradual introduction of new foods is encouraged.
• Smaller portions and finger foods are typically preferred.
• Toddlers need 12 hours of sleep each night and one nap during the day.
• Parallel play, where toddlers play alongside each other without direct interaction, is common.
• Activities involving movement, exploration, and creativity are beneficial for development.

Preschool (3 to 5 Years)

• Physical development continues, with steady growth in size, shape, and motor skills.
• Gross motor skills like running, climbing, jumping, and throwing improve greatly.
• Fine motor skills develop, including drawing, using scissors, and writing.
• Vision improves during this period, with most children achieving 20/30 visual accuracy by age 4.
• The preschooler's brain continues to develop, supporting cognitive and language abilities.

Preschool (3 to 5 Years) Psychosocial and Cognitive Development

• Erikson's theory suggests that preschoolers strive for initiative versus guilt.
• They develop a sense of self-efficacy as they explore different roles and identities.
• The preschooler's conscience, or superego, develops as they learn right from wrong.
• Cognitive development progresses into the pre-operational stage, where symbolic representation and intuitive thinking emerge.
• Preschoolers are curious and eager to experiment, incorporating new concepts into their understanding of the world.

Preschool Period

• The child's understanding of the world is egocentric.
• Children experience things as absolutes (black or white, good or bad)
• Magical thoughts are common
• At this age, the child is more vulnerable to certain fears, probably fallout from the typically vivid imagination.

Communication and Language

• By age 3 years, children are able to carry on a conversation.
• Pronunciation problems continue into the school years.
• Language becomes more adult-like.
• If the child is not talking by age 3 years, evaluation by a physician for possible hearing loss or other pathologic speech disturbances is necessary.

Nutrition

• Preschool children need high levels of protein for body systems and muscle growth.
• Dietary calcium and phosphorus are important for the increasing mineralization of their teeth and bones.
• Food habits, likes, dislikes, and appetites vary greatly from child to child.
• A body mass index (BMI) at or above the 85th percentile and lower than the 95th percentile for children of the same gender and age is considered overweight.
• A BMI at or above the 95% percentile for children of the same gender and age is considered obese.
• Controlling weight is important to prevent future health issues.

Sleep, Play Activity, and Safety

• Preschoolers need about 11 to 12 hours of sleep at night.
• Play style becomes cooperative: They begin to share, take turns, and interact with playmates.
• Preschoolers enjoy pretending to carry out activities.
• By age 4 to 5 years, children are learning to ride a bicycle with training wheels.
• Swimming, skating, and dancing are activities that children in this age group often begin to learn and enjoy.
• Safe use of equipment, supervision in and around water, and preventative measures are crucial for preschoolers.

Discipline and Limit Setting

• Discipline and limit setting are as important to the child as are love and security.

School Age (6 to 12 years)

• Growth is gradual and subtle during this period.
• Height and weight increase by about 2 inches and 4 1/2 to 6 1/2 pounds.
• Motor skills develop with some differences between boys and girls.
• Body fat is lost and muscle mass and strength increase.
• Posture becomes straighter.
• Vision improves and most children have 20/20 vision at this stage.

Psychosocial Development

• School entry challenges the child, requiring new social and cognitive skills.
• Children become more independent and participate in a broader world of peers and experiences.
• The child becomes increasingly aware of rules and social expectations.
• Children begin to learn to compromise and compete.
• Erickson identified the task of school-aged years as industry vs. inferiority.
• The school climate can be affected negatively by bullying, verbal, relational and cyber leading to physical injury, depression, anxiety, sleep difficulties, and even death.

Cognitive and Intellectual Development

• According to Piaget, children in the school years move into the concrete operational phase.
• Thought becomes logical and coherent: The child can classify, sort, and organize facts.
• Children understand logical principles and develop logical socialized thought.
• Movement away from fantasy as the child realizes that a physical cause is behind an event.

Communication and Language

• Most 6-year-olds have a good command of sentence structure, and vocabulary becomes extensive.
• Fine motor development leads to refinements in written-language and musical abilities.
• Printing becomes clearer and smaller by age 7.
• Handwriting replaces printing between ages 8-10.
• Children between 10-12 years have the capacity to complete complex, intricate handcrafts and may start playing instruments.

Nutrition

• Total metabolic needs are determined by individual activity levels.
• Strong dietary habits and food preferences are established during this period.
• Cultural influences, family habits, and peer pressure are critical factors in food choices.
• Obesity during this period is closely correlated with obesity in adulthood.
• Diets high in saturated fat increase a child’s risk for high blood cholesterol and early occurrence of heart disease.

Sleep, Play Activity, and Safety

• School-age children need about 10-12 hours of sleep at night.
• Fatigue, irritability, inattention, and poor learning are often signs of inadequate sleep.
• Stress, violence on television, and overtiredness can contribute to nightmares.
• School-age children need adequate exercise.
• Children enjoy music, crafts, board games, and video games.
• Privacy is important.
• Many children get involved in competitive team sports.
• Accidents are the leading cause of death in this age group.
• The impulsiveness, poor judgment, curiosity, and incomplete motor coordination of school-age children increase the risk of accidents.
• Television can have a powerful influence on development.
• School violence is a concern: Factors leading to a rise in violence include the availability of weapons and breakdown of communication.

Emotional Health

• Parents must be aware of the effects of television violence on children.
• Encourage parents to ask questions about their child's feelings and school activities daily.
• Teach children constructive ways to handle their impulses.
• Gun safety is necessary.
• Ammunition must be removed from firearms and guns must be locked away securely.
• Children of all ages must be taught what to do if they find a gun.

Adolescence: 12-19 Years

• Adolescence begins at puberty with physical changes and corresponding changes in personality.
• Primary changes occur in the reproductive organs.
• Secondary changes occur in other parts of the body (pubic and facial hair, voice changes, and fat deposits)
• Adolescence is characterized by a second period of rapid growth.
• Sexual interest increases markedly, creating conflict with social disapproval and prohibitions.

Psychosocial Development

• Behavioral changes are evident as the adolescent nears this stage.
• The search for identity amid a world of social pressures creates a struggle.
• Erickson described the developmental task of adolescence as establishing a sense of identity.
• Peers have a significant influence on preferences.

Cognitive Development

• Piaget describes this stage as the formal operational thought stage.
• Individuals cognitive function reaches maturity.
• Thinking transcends the present and can imagine the possible: a sequence of events that may occur; how things may change in the future.

Moral Development

• Moral development approaches or achieves adult levels during adolescence.
• Young people search for a moral code that preserves their personal identity.

Nutrition

• Increased caloric needs are necessary due to rapid growth.
• Dietary habits are affected by: cultural background, family habits, work schedules, school, concern about weight gain, peer influence, and lack of knowledge concerning correct food choices.
• Eating disorders are a concern: Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are on the rise in young women.
• Protein needs are increased due to rapid growth.
• The diet may be deficient in calcium, iron, and zinc: for skeletal, tissue, and red blood cell growth.

Sleep, Play Activity, and Safety

• Adolescence requires increased hours of sleep to restore energy and pace activities to allow for adequate rest.
• Sports injuries may be caused by growth spurts, which cause bones to grow faster than muscles and tendons.
• Participation in organized sports helps adolescents learn to work with others, meet challenges.
• Accidents are the leading cause of death in this group, due to more risky behaviors.
• Driver's education, water safety training, education about safe sex, and drug education are necessary.

Emotional Health

• Adolescence experiences different moods: outgoing and gregarious, then moody and loners.
• Depression is common and parents, teachers, and healthcare workers should recognize its signs, as early detection and intervention are crucial to prevent suicide.
• All threats of suicide must be taken seriously, and be alert to sudden changes in behavior.

Early Adulthood: 20-40 Years

• Early adulthood is at its optimal level of functioning.
• Most body functions are fully developed during the mid-20s.
• Between ages 30-45, height is stable and then declines.
• Fatty tissue increases, causing weight gain and a decrease in muscle strength.
• Visual acuity is sharpest at about age 20.

Psychosocial Development

• The transition to adulthood is marked by events like financial responsibility, career choices, social relationships, marriage, and parenthood.
• Dual-career families have emerged.
• Starting a family requires consideration of financial means, safety, support, housing, and the role of the extended family.
• Family development and harmony are important goals.
• Erickson’s developmental task of adulthood is intimacy vs. isolation.### Early Adulthood: 18 - 40 years
• Physical Development:
  • Peak physical performance is usually achieved in early adulthood (20s)
  • Gradual decline begins in late 20s and early 30s
  • Reproductive: most fertile during this stage
  • Health: generally good health in early adulthood, but lifestyle choices have a significant influence
  • Nutrition: Proper diet and exercise are crucial for good health
  • Physical activity: Regular exercise benefits physical and psychological well-being, including the cardiovascular system, immune system, and mental health
  • Sleep: Most adults need 7-9 hours of restorative sleep each night.
  • Physical and Dental Examinations annual checkup recommended
  • Safety: Accidents are the leading cause of disability and death in this age group, often due to work, vehicles, sports, or violence.
• Cognitive Development
  • Piaget's Formal Operational Stage: adulthood is marked by the development of an integrative approach to thinking, which includes abstract reasoning and problem-solving.
• Psychosocial Development:
  • Erickson's Intimacy vs. Isolation Stage: Finding a balance between independence and interdependence is central to this stage. This involves forming meaningful partnerships and connections with others.
  • Isolation: Distancing oneself from meaningful relationships can lead to isolation and self-absorption.

Middle Adulthood: 40 - 65 Years

• Physical Characteristics
  • Gradual Changes: Many individuals enjoy good health, but some changes signal a shift away from peak performance
  • Bone Density: Bone mass decreases with age as skeletal growth cells deplete.
    • Women experience accelerated bone loss after menopause, increasing their risk of osteoporosis.
    • Men also lose bone density, but at a lower pace.
  • Height Changes: Slight height decrease due to vertebral compression and hardening of collagen fibers.
  • Muscle Mass: Reduction in muscle mass as muscle tissue decreases, with changes in muscle strength primarily linked to activity levels.
  • Body Weight Redistribution: Changes in body shape and contour due to decreased metabolism and activity.
  • Vision: Presbyopia (age-related farsightedness) emerges, affecting near vision.
  • Hearing: Presbycusis (age-related hearing loss) begins, affecting speech intelligibility, auditory threshold, and pitch.
  • Skin Changes: Decreased elasticity and subcutaneous tissue, promoting looser and wrinkled skin.
  • Hair Growth: Alterations in hair growth, color, and distribution are common.
  • Dental Health: Increased risk of periodontal disease, requiring preventive treatments like flossing and regular cleaning.
  • Hormonal Changes: Menopause in women involves a decline in estrogen and progesterone production.
    • Perimenopause marks the transition period.
    • Signs and symptoms include irregular periods, flow changes, breast tenderness, hot flashes, palpitations, night sweats, and mood swings.
    • Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) can alleviate symptoms, but there are potential risks and benefits to consider.
    • Sexual Function: Women often experience enhanced sexuality after menopause, while men might experience decreased libido, delayed erections, and loss of body hair. Their ability to reproduce remains.
  • "Mid-life Crisis": Some men experience a mid-life crisis due to changes in body appearance and feeling less masculine.
• Psychosocial Development:
  • Erickson's Generativity vs. Stagnation Stage:
    • Generativity: Productive and creative, often involving nurturing and guiding younger generations.
    • Stagnation: Inactivity, lack of purpose, and feelings of stagnation, leading to emotional emptiness.
  • Family Roles:
    • Transition: Adjust to an empty nest as children leave home.
    • Marital Relationships: Couples need to re-establish intimacy and rediscover each other.
    • Grandparenting: Often becomes a rewarding experience – grandparents typically value their independence and avoid dictating child-raising practices to the younger generation.
    • Caregiving for Aging Parents: Stressful transition, often for daughters, involves 'parenting the parent,' leading to emotional and sometimes financial strain.
• Health Promotion
  • Nutrition: Fewer calories needed due to less active lifestyles, but obesity is a concern.
    • CDC reports that 69% of Americans over 20 are overweight or obese.
    • Undernutrition may occur due to poverty or self-imposed dieting.
  • Exercise: Regular exercise is vital for maintaining joint and bone health, stress management, and menopause-related symptoms.
    • Recommendations include calcium intake (1000 mg for premenopausal women, 1200 mg for postmenopausal women), rich dietary sources for calcium and magnesium, and reduced fat intake.
  • Physical and Dental Examinations: Annual checkups and biannual dental appointments are important.
  • Sleep and Rest: Sleep quality decreases, leading to a greater need for daytime rest.

Late Adulthood: 65 Years and Older

• Overview:
  • Rapidly Growing Population: The number of older adults is steadily increasing, reaching 46 million in 2014, with a projected doubling by 2060.
  • Age Groups: 65 years and older
    • Young Older Adult (65-74 years)
    • Middle Older Adult (75-84 years)
    • Old Older Adult (85+ years)
  • Fastest Growing Segment: 85 years and older.
• Sociological Issues:
  • Work, Retirement, Social Security, and Health Care: Recognizing and valuing the contributions and skills of older adults is essential.
  • Planning for the Future: Making arrangements and plans in early adulthood can ease this transition.
  • Financial Assistance Programs: Implementing programs to ensure financial security and support for older adults is crucial.
• Biological Theories of Aging:
  • Autoimmunity Theory: Aging results in the immune system’s inability to distinguish 'self' cells from foreign invaders, potentially leading to autoimmune diseases. This theory is supported by the increased accumulation of lymphocytes and plasma cells in older adults.
  • Free Radical Theory: Highly reactive cellular components called free radicals (generated by radiation, heat, and oxidation) impair cellular function contributing to aging.
    • Lipofuscin, a pigmented waste product, is linked to the aging process.
  • Wear and Tear Theory: Aging is determined by the amount of wear and tear on the body, suggesting physical abuse can accelerate aging.
  • Genetic Theory: Aging may be genetically determined, similar to traits like hair color and height. Studying longevity genes in animals provides insights into genetic mechanisms of aging.
• Psychological Theories of Aging
  • Disengagement Theory: Older adults withdraw from society and society encourages this withdrawal, leading to a sense of frustration resulting from their declining functionality in roles.
    • Critiques: It doesn’t account for active older adults, and the process is not universal across cultures.
  • Activity Theory: Maintaining social engagement with others contributes to positive adjustment, higher morale, life satisfaction, and better mental health.
  • Continuity Theory: Adjustment to aging is easier by retaining similar roles and interests throughout life.
• Physical Characteristics:
  • Aging: A complex, individualized process impacting cells, tissues, and organs.
  • Weight: A slow increase in weight, particularly between 45-50 years, with differences in fat distribution between genders.
  • Height: Loss of height starts around 50 years due to the compression of intervertebral discs, contributing to increased spinal curvature.
    • Kyphosis (exaggerated Thoracic curvature) increases with age, potentially affecting respiratory efficiency.
• Psychosocial Development:
  • Life Experiences: Past years, including successes, failures, strengths, weaknesses, and early experiences, shape an individual's emotional well-being in later life.
  • Erickson's Ego Integrity vs. Despair Stage:
    • Ego Integrity: Older adults who are content with their life accomplishments experience a sense of purpose and fulfillment.
    • Despair: Those with regrets or dissatisfaction may experience restlessness, panic, and a sense of unfinished business.
    • Factors affecting adjustment: Retirement, health, and finances are central to life satisfaction in late adulthood.
  • Family Roles:
    • Grandparents: Grandparenting in late adulthood is often different than past generations, with grandparents often being highly active and working.
    • Caregiving: Full-time grandparenting can increase stress and financial burden.
    • Couples: Increased togetherness might require adjustments, while widowed individuals face significant changes in roles, lifestyle, and finances.
  • Friendship Networks: Maintaining old friendships and exploring new connections is important.
  • Death of a Spouse: A major adjustment, more common for women than men, leading to changes in roles and resources.
    • Remarriage can provide companionship.

Cognitive and Intellectual Development

• Older adults in good health and supportive environments can maintain or improve cognitive function.
• Factors influencing cognitive functioning include education level, work roles, personality, health, lifestyle, and the meaningfulness of tasks performed.
• Memory changes with age, including a greater decline in recent memory compared to remote memory.
• While older adults may process information slower, they often achieve higher accuracy, potentially due to prioritizing accuracy over speed.

Health Promotion

• Factors influencing health include environment, social patterns, diet, exercise, and personal habits.
• Healthy lifestyle benefits people of all ages, including older populations.
• Older adults should get annual pneumococcal and influenza vaccinations.

Nutrition

• Adequate nutrition is crucial for health maintenance and quality of life.
• Older adults often need assistance with food-related tasks like shopping, meal planning, and preparation.
• Recommended diets for older adults emphasize low saturated fats, low carbohydrates, and high fiber with high quality and lower caloric quantity.
• Poor oral health, lack of appetite or food intolerances, and constipation can pose challenges to dietary compliance.
• Nutritional assessments and counseling help identify problems, ensure compliance with dietary recommendations, consider long-standing habits and cultural influences, and provide effective interventions.
• Older adults' diets can be influenced by economic factors, loneliness, and limitations in shopping and meal preparation.
• Adequate hydration is essential for older adults, requiring a minimum daily intake of 1500 mL.
• Older adults may avoid fluids due to fear of incontinence or decreased thirst.

Activity

• Regular, satisfying exercise offers cardiovascular advantages, including lower blood pressure, enhanced oxygen utilization, and improved joint mobility.

Sleep

• Older adults need more rest but may experience less actual sleep.
• Increased nighttime awakenings and safety concerns make it crucial to address potential risks.
• Interventions to improve safety include using nightlights, reducing clutter, removing scatter rugs, installing handrails and grab bars, rising slowly from a lying position, and avoiding rushing or hurrying.
• Medications, alcohol, caffeine, stress, environmental noise, and temperature can affect sleep quality.

Safety

• Preventing accidents requires understanding and acknowledging factors contributing to increased risk.
• Diminished vision and changes in posture or balance can elevate the risk of falls.
• Even a single fall can result in an injury requiring extended immobilization, diminishing independence and self-esteem.