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Questions and Answers

Where did the Second Industrial Revolution originate?

Italy

France

Great Britain (correct)

Germany

Which of the following was NOT a factor in the Second Industrial Revolution's origin in Great Britain?

An extensive river system

The existence of a large merchant class (correct)

The lack of internal trade tariffs

A well-developed commercial economy

What was the impact of the railway boom of the 1830s and 1840s on demand for resources?

Increased demand for both steel and coal (correct)

Increased demand for coal but decreased demand for steel

Increased demand for steel but decreased demand for coal

Did not affect the demand for steel

In Russia, industrialization occurred rapidly under the direction of which finance minister?

Serge Witte Signup and view all the answers

One effect of the Second Industrial Revolution on social structure was the creation of which class?

A lower middle class of managers and clerks Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about conservatives in the nineteenth century is true?

They supported the privileges of the aristocracy and clergy. Signup and view all the answers

Nineteenth-century Romanticism was a reaction against what?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is NOT true of nineteenth-century liberalism?

It supported the privileges of the clergy. Signup and view all the answers

Goethe's 'The Sorrows of Young Werther' is an example of which movement?

The Sturm und Drang movement Signup and view all the answers

Utilitarianism is distinct from liberalism primarily because it advocates for what?

Government regulation of working conditions Signup and view all the answers

Nineteenth-century anarchists were most active in which country?

Russia Signup and view all the answers

Industrial socialism sought to create what kind of environment for workers?

A profitable industrial enterprise without exploiting workers Signup and view all the answers

The concept that competition is necessary for social progress was promoted by whom?

Herbert Spencer Signup and view all the answers

The Renaissance marks the beginning of the modern era in large part due to the development of all of the following EXCEPT

Northern Europe began to dominate Southern Europe Signup and view all the answers

"Geography is Destiny" proved true for the Italians of the 14th and 15th centuries for all of the following reasons EXCEPT

The establishment of overland trade with Asia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was NOT an effect of the Hundred Years War?

The unification of Castile and Aragon Signup and view all the answers

The Black Death refers to

The outbreak of plague in Europe that killed between one-quarter and one-third of the population between 1347 and 1352 Signup and view all the answers

Fifteenth-century attempts by the cardinals to reform, reunite, and reinvigorate the Church are known collectively as

The Conciliar Movement Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a way in which fifteenth-century armies differed from their predecessors?

They were commanded by officers of noble birth Signup and view all the answers

Of the fifteenth-century attempts by monarchs to consolidate and centralize power, the most successful was in

Spain Signup and view all the answers

In the fifteenth century, the Holy Roman Emperor

Was elected by a seven-member council of German archbishops and nobles Signup and view all the answers

The era of daring exploration and discovery at the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries was inspired by

The search for gold and competition for the spice trade Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was NOT an effect of the creation of a Spanish Empire in the New World?

The establishment of a hierarchical social structure in Europe Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was NOT a factor that contributed to the Renaissance artistic achievement?

The invasion of Italy by the French Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following did NOT enable the spread of the Renaissance?

The Treaty of Lodi Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was NOT a Renaissance value?

Proficiency in the military arts Signup and view all the answers

Renaissance humanism

Valued scholarship for its own sake and for the glory it brought the city-state Signup and view all the answers

The belief that by cultivating the finest qualities of their beings, human beings could commune with God was a conclusion of

Neoplatonists Signup and view all the answers

What contributed to the Reformation?

Northern humanism Signup and view all the answers

What was the Great Fear?

A source of pressure on the king and nobility Signup and view all the answers

What did The Civil Constitution of the Clergy do?

Curbed the power of the clergy but alienated many Catholics Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following precipitated the radical turn of the revolution EXCEPT?

The execution of the king Signup and view all the answers

What justification did Robespierre give for the Reign of Terror?

It was necessary to establish a democratic republic Signup and view all the answers

What occurred during Thermidor?

Bourgeois moderates reasserted their power Signup and view all the answers

Why did The Directory turn to the military?

It was threatened by both Jacobin and Royalist opposition Signup and view all the answers

Which principle was NOT upheld by the Napoleonic Code?

The safeguarding of the traditional privileges of the nobility Signup and view all the answers

What did the Concordat of 1801 achieve?

Reconciled France with the Roman Church Signup and view all the answers

What happened at the Battle of Trafalgar?

The British navy defeated combined French and Spanish fleets Signup and view all the answers

What most accurately explains the decline and fall of Napoleon?

A combination of flawed policies and growing resistance to French rule Signup and view all the answers

What were the aims of the great powers at the Congress of Vienna?

To restore traditional order and create balance of power Signup and view all the answers

What did the Concert of Europe authorize Austria to do?

Toward nationalist movements in Italy Signup and view all the answers

What did the July Ordinances of 1830 lead to?

A rebellion forcing Charles X to abdicate Signup and view all the answers

How can the revolutions of 1848 be best understood?

Tension between liberal and nationalist aspirations and aristocracy Signup and view all the answers

What was NOT an effect of the division of labor?

Raised wages for manufacturing workers Signup and view all the answers

What did the invention of new forms of power such as steam and electricity allow manufacturers to do?

Relocate mills away from water sources Signup and view all the answers

How did the Second Industrial Revolution in Europe occur?

Took place later but more rapidly in Eastern Europe Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was NOT a problem the Church faced?

Its inability to tend to the physical needs of the poor Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was part of Luther's theology?

The idea that salvation came only through faith Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was NOT a reason that a Protestant movement emerged?

The Society of Jesus took up Luther's cause Signup and view all the answers

The Peace of Augsburg established what principle?

He who rules; his religion Signup and view all the answers

In what way does Calvin's theology differ from Luther's?

The belief that some have been predestined for salvation Signup and view all the answers

The uprising and subsequent repression of the Anabaptists illustrates all of the following EXCEPT:

The Catholic Church still had the power to crush its opposition Signup and view all the answers

The Council of Trent insisted on what regarding the Catholic Church?

That the Catholic Church was the final arbiter in all matters of faith Signup and view all the answers

The term 'Dissenters' refers to:

English Protestants who refused to join the Church of England Signup and view all the answers

During the period from 1600 to 1715, which factor did NOT put pressure on the traditional social hierarchy of Europe?

The rejection of religious practice by large numbers of people Signup and view all the answers

The English Parliament during the period from 1600 to 1715:

Was the institution where nobles, merchants, and professionals formed an alliance to oppose the absolutist goals of the Stuart monarchs Signup and view all the answers

In the period 1600-1715, which of the following did NOT contribute to the English success in resisting absolutism?

The English nobility was the most powerful in all of Europe Signup and view all the answers

Compared with the Romanov Tsars, the Bourbon monarchs of France in the period 1600-1715:

Were less reliant on the nobility for their power Signup and view all the answers

The single most important factor for central and eastern European monarchs to reach compromises on sovereignty during 1600 to 1715 was:

The lack of a well-developed middle class of merchants and professionals Signup and view all the answers

The reign of Peter the Great of Russia resulted in:

The territorial expansion of the Russian Empire Signup and view all the answers

Compared with their counterparts in Russia, the English peasantry of the early 1700s:

Had a greater chance of improving their social and economic position Signup and view all the answers

By the early eighteenth century, which kingdom afforded the greatest amount of self-rule to its subjects?

England Signup and view all the answers

Medieval Christian scholars advocated the Aristotelian view of the cosmos because:

There was an intellectual fit between the Aristotelian view and Christian theology Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a reason that the Church was alarmed by Copernicus's suggestion that the cosmos was heliocentric?

Copernicus was a Protestant. Signup and view all the answers

The seventeenth-century astronomer who first suggested that the planets' orbits were elliptical rather than circular was

Kepler Signup and view all the answers

The event that finally caused the Church to summon Galileo before the Inquisition was

The publication of the Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was argued by Descartes in his Discourse on Method?

The only true statements are those one cannot possibly doubt. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the best example of Descartes' deductive method of reasoning?

"I think, therefore I am." Signup and view all the answers

Isaac Newton is best described as working in

The Platonic-Pythagorean tradition Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT contained in Kepler's laws of motion?

The planets orbit the Sun because they are caught in swirling vortices of matter. Signup and view all the answers

Hobbes and Locke DISAGREED in their belief that

The natural state of men is one of war Signup and view all the answers

Locke argued that the primary aim of government is

To assure the right to property Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT true of the philosophes?

They used their positions as university professors to influence society. Signup and view all the answers

The economic policy known as Laissez-faire

Is based on the notion that human self-interest produces natural laws that govern economic behavior Signup and view all the answers

The religious belief of the majority of the philosophes was

Deism Signup and view all the answers

The style of Enlightenment literature made famous by Voltaire was

The satire Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following presented the most radical challenge to the traditional ruling regimes of eighteenth-century Europe?

Rousseau's notion that a lawful government must be continually responsible to the general will of the people Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT part of Rousseau's thought?

All religion is based on 'hope and fear.' Signup and view all the answers

The main obstacle to solving France's financial problems was

The fact that both the nobility and clergy were exempt from most taxes Signup and view all the answers

The significance of the storming of the Bastille was that

It demonstrated that the crowd could be an important ally for the Assembly Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Renaissance and Its Impact

The Renaissance initiated the modern era, highlighting the emergence of individualism, trade, scientific thought, and the foundations of capitalism.
Northern Europe did not dominate Southern Europe until the 17th century, related to Spain's decline.

Geographic Influences on Italy

Italy's strategic location near the Mediterranean fostered trade and economic development.
Their role as intermediaries in European trade facilitated wealth accumulation but did not arise from overland trade with Asia.

Aftermath of the Hundred Years War

The war led to a population decrease, peasant revolts, political unification in France, and economic decline in England.
The unification of Castile and Aragon was unrelated to the war and occurred through royal marriage.

The Black Death

The Black Death was a devastating plague striking Europe from 1347 to 1352, killing a significant portion of the population.
It diminished the influence of traditional authorities like the Church, contrary to increasing their power.

Church Reforms in the 15th Century

The Conciliar Movement represented attempts to reform and revitalize the Church through council-led initiatives.
Key distinctions exist between the Conciliar Movement, the Reformation, and the Counter-Reformation, with each having different focuses and leadership.

Changes in Military Organization

15th-century armies relied on mercenaries, sought profit, and utilized artillery over cavalry.
Nobility remained commanders of armies, marking continuity in military leadership patterns.

Power Consolidation by Monarchs

Spain, under Isabella and Ferdinand, most effectively consolidated power through church control and nobility suppression.
England faced delays due to internal strife, while France dealt with the influential Duke of Burgundy.

Holy Roman Emperor's Role

The Holy Roman Emperor was elected by a council of German nobles and archbishops, distinct from the Papacy.
The position remained unaffected by the Hundred Years War or notable figures like Ferdinand of Aragon.

Motivations Behind Exploration

The quest for wealth and spice trade competition propelled exploration during the late 15th and early 16th centuries.
Events like the Reformation and the invention of the steam engine were unrelated, as were previous plagues like the Black Death.

Effects of Spanish Expansion in the New World

Economic inflation, Catholicism's establishment, and emerging merchant classes stemmed from Spanish imperial activities.
Europe's hierarchical structure predated the Spanish Empire's creation, being unaltered by it.

Renaissance Ideals

Renaissance values emphasized artistic mastery, civic duty, and scholarship, while military proficiency diminished in significance.
Humanism celebrated well-roundedness, reviving classical texts and philosophies without denying divine existence.

Neoplatonism's Spiritual Beliefs

Neoplatonists believed that personal cultivation of virtues could foster communion with God, differing from traditional Church views.

Artistic Contributions to Renaissance Achievements

Artistic advancements derived from papal patronage, competitive elites, the apprentice system, and integrating art with commerce.
French invasion did not enhance but rather spread the Renaissance beyond Italy.

Northern Humanism

Northern humanism maintained a connection to religious piety while advocating literacy and scriptural understanding.
These ideas contributed significantly to the Reformation’s emergence.

Challenges Facing the Church (16th Century)

The Church grappled with its political entanglement, ineffective communication in Latin, and growing popular literacy.
Emotional and spiritual care for the populace remained strong, countering allegations of neglect in these areas.

Martin Luther’s Key Doctrines

Luther posited that faith alone grants salvation, rejecting the need for charitable works as prerequisites for heaven.
He aimed to reform the Church instead of creating a separate Protestant institution, emphasizing scripture over natural guidance.### Protestant Movement Emergence
The Society of Jesus aimed to combat, not promote, Protestantism.
Powerful Protestant princes protected Luther, aiding his movement.
Luther’s theology spread rapidly through the printing press utilized by his students.
Peasants misinterpreted Luther’s theology as a rationale for their discontent.
The Church's slow response to Luther's actions allowed the Protestant movement to gain momentum.

Peace of Augsburg

The treaty established the principle "he who rules; his religion," preventing wars over religious differences.
No war occurred between the Church and Protestant princes in connection to this treaty.
The agreement was unrelated to the English Reformation or the Church of England.
Geneva became the center of Calvinism due to Calvin's influence and the local vote for Protestantism.

Calvin vs. Luther

Calvin's distinct belief in predestination stated that only the "elect" would achieve salvation, unlike Luther's view of salvation through true faith.

Anabaptist Uprising

Anabaptists’ actions highlighted the desire for social changes among poorer classes.
Protestant princes, not the Catholic Church, suppressed the Anabaptist movement.
The Anabaptists' belief in imminent judgment reflected connections to millenarianism.
Diverse beliefs within Protestantism were evident as different groups clashed.

Council of Trent

Insisted on Catholic Church’s primacy in faith matters despite usual reforms appealing to Protestants.
Did not excommunicate Luther or establish the Inquisition, which was a papal initiative.

Dissenters

Refers specifically to English Protestants rejecting the Church of England.
Groups like Anabaptists were part of broader dissent but not the sole definition.

Continuous warfare amplified economic strain and tax demands on the populace.
Climate change led to poor harvests, intensifying social pressures.
Monarchs aimed to consolidate power amidst a backdrop of changing economic landscapes.
Widespread religious fervor complicated existing social tensions.

English Parliament (1600-1715)

Parliament was a mixed body including nobles and emerging merchant classes, opposed the absolutist intentions of the Stuart monarchs.
Not a new institution; it had historical roots and credibility among the English populace.

Resistance to Absolutism in England

The alliance between nobles and wealthy merchants significantly undermined absolutist Stuart endeavors.
The English economy’s development fostered a strong middle class, balancing power against monarchic ambitions.

Bourbon Monarchs vs. Romanov Tsars

Bourbon monarchs operated with stronger central control at the nobility's expense, contrasting with Romanov reliance on noble power.
Both were absolutist, but their methods of governance differed.

Compromises by Central and Eastern European Rulers

Monarchs required a merchant middle class to establish strong centralized authority, leading to necessary compromises.
The lack of this class hindered the formation of powerful states.

Peter the Great's Reign (1682-1725)

His reign marked significant territorial expansion of Russia.
Strengthened the Russian Orthodox Church and did not diminish the power of serfdom.
The economic burdens on peasants intensified under his rule.

Comparison of English and Russian Peasantry

English peasantry enjoyed greater prospects for social mobility compared to the restricted Russian serfs.
Russian peasants bore heavier restrictions on freedom of movement.

Self-rule in Early 18th Century Kingdoms

England's constitutional monarchy provided its subjects with the most self-governance in Europe, unlike other kingdoms ruled under absolute monarchies.

Influence of Aristotelian Cosmology

Medieval scholars aligned Aristotelian views with Christian theology, finding coherence in the cosmos's structure and their beliefs.
The Church's eventual concerns over Copernicus’ heliocentric model stemmed from threats to established theological frameworks and authorities.

Key Historical Events in Astronomy

Kepler pioneered the concept of elliptical planetary orbits, forming a significant departure from previous beliefs.
Galileo's "Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World" triggered the Church's scrutiny and subsequent Inquisition, emphasizing the conflict between emerging scientific thought and established doctrine.### Descartes and Knowledge
Descartes argued that true knowledge is derived from clear and distinct ideas that cannot be doubted.
Empirical observations are unreliable, as they depend on the senses which can be deceptive.
The idea of knowledge being absolute for deduction is encapsulated in "I think, therefore I am."
His work promotes a strict method of reasoning starting from undeniable propositions.

Newton's Contribution

Isaac Newton is primarily aligned with the Platonic-Pythagorean tradition, emphasizing mathematical laws of nature.
He rejected Aristotelian cosmology and scholastic reliance on ancient texts, favoring empirical mathematics.
Newton is known for the law of universal gravitation, promoting rigorous scientific inquiry.

Kepler's Laws of Motion

Kepler's laws highlight that planetary orbits are elliptical and that planets' speeds vary based on their distance from the Sun.
The vortex theory, which attributed planetary movement to swirling matter, was promoted by Descartes, not Kepler.

Hobbes vs. Locke

Hobbes believed that man’s natural state is one of war, necessitating an absolute ruler, while Locke held a more optimistic view of human nature and social cooperation.
Both philosophers acknowledged self-interest and equality among men but diverged significantly on the nature of human conflict and governance.
Locke emphasized property rights as a fundamental aim of government.

Philosophes and Their Impact

Philosophes were not primarily university professors; they engaged in various literary genres aiming to educate the public and promote a reasoned society.
They often interacted with salon-hosting women, shaping public discourse in Enlightenment ideas.

Economic Policy of Laissez-faire

Laissez-faire advocates for minimal government intervention in economic affairs, arguing human self-interest leads to natural economic laws.
The policy opposes protectionist measures and does not support total freedom in all actions, focusing specifically on economics.

Beliefs of the Philosophes

Deism was the predominant religious belief among philosophes, viewing God as a rational creator who does not intervene in the world.
They generally rejected traditional religions based on faith without reason.

Voltaire's Literary Style

Voltaire is celebrated for his satirical style, which critiques society and government through works like "Candide."

Revolutionary Ideas

Rousseau's concept of government being accountable to the general will of the people was a radical departure from traditional ruling ideologies.
His notion that man is born free yet constrained by society emphasized themes of equality and civic engagement.

Events Leading to Radicalization of the Revolution

Factors like the rise of the sans-culottes, the king's flight, and factional divisions in the Assembly accelerated the move towards more radical revolutionary measures.
The execution of the king was a result of the radicalization rather than a cause.

The Reign of Terror

Justified by Robespierre as necessary for establishing a virtuous republic, the Reign of Terror targeted various groups without discrimination.
The radical phase of the revolution was supported by urban populations but ultimately consumed its leaders.

Thermidor

The Thermidorian Reaction marked the return of moderate bourgeois rule following the excesses of the radical period of the revolution.
Nobility had largely distanced themselves, and the sans-culottes had lost their influence by this time.

The Directory's Military Reliance

The Directory turned to military support to defend against threats from Jacobins and Royalists, maintaining stability amid political opposition.
It never had significant backing from the sans-culottes or nobility.

Napoleonic Code Principles

The Napoleonic Code emphasized property rights and legal equality but did not support the traditional privileges of the nobility.

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