19th Century Movements

• The Committee on Public Safety was established during the French Revolution to protect the nation against internal and external threats.

• Klemens von Metternich, a prominent Austrian diplomat, supported conservatism and the restoration of monarchies after the Napoleonic Wars.

• An export economy relies on producing goods and commodities primarily for sale to other countries.

• The "Scramble for Africa" refers to the rapid colonization of the African continent by European powers during the late 19th century.

• Electrifying the workplace led to increased productivity, new industries, and changes in labor practices.

• Important medical innovations of the late 19th century included advancements in germ theory, anesthesia, and vaccination.

Romanticism

• Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emphasized emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature.

Realism

• Realism was a movement that sought to depict the world objectively and accurately, often focusing on the lives of ordinary people.

• The Great Stink was an event in London in 1858 when the smell of untreated human waste became overwhelming, highlighting the need for sanitation improvements.

• Cholera is an infectious disease caused by contaminated water, which led to major epidemics in the 19th century.

• The Katorga system was a system of forced labor camps in Russia, primarily used for political prisoners and criminals.

• Brazil wanted immigration in the second half of the 19th century to develop its economy, particularly its agricultural sector, after the abolition of slavery.

• The Taiping Rebellion led to Chinese emigration as people sought to escape the conflict and find better opportunities elsewhere.

• Britain's Alkali Act was an early piece of environmental legislation aimed at controlling air pollution from alkali production.

Social Darwinism

• Social Darwinism applied Darwinian concepts like "survival of the fittest" to human society, often to justify social inequality and imperialism.

• "The sun never sets on the British Empire" because it had colonies and territories around the globe, ensuring constant daylight on its lands.

• The Sepoy Mutiny was a rebellion against British rule in India, sparked by grievances over cultural and religious insensitivity.

• The Open Door Policy aimed to maintain free trade access to China for all nations, preventing any single power from dominating the region.

• Independence in Latin America led to political instability, economic challenges, and the fragmentation of former Spanish colonies.

• Late 19th-century colonization differed because it was characterized by more intense competition, advanced technology, and a focus on economic exploitation and strategic control.

• Motives behind imperialism included economic gain, strategic advantages, national prestige, and the desire to spread cultural and political influence.

• The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, formalizing the "Scramble for Africa."

• Casta was a hierarchical system of racial classification in Spanish America, determining social status and privileges based on ancestry.

• The intendancy system was implemented by the Bourbon Kings in Spain to increase administrative efficiency and royal control over the colonies.

• French revolutionaries provoked insurrection in the Americas by inspiring ideas of liberty, equality, and self-government among colonial populations.

• The Haitian Revolution was a successful revolt of enslaved Africans against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, leading to the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.

• The Hidalgo Revolt was an early independence movement in Mexico, led by Miguel Hidalgo, a Catholic priest.

• Latin American liberals and patriots advocated for independence, republicanism, constitutionalism, and free trade.

• The Congress of Cúcuta established Gran Colombia, uniting Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador under one government.

• Simón Bolívar's political program for Gran Colombia aimed to create a unified, independent, and powerful nation in South America.

• The Guayaquil Conference was a meeting between Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín to discuss the future of South America and the independence movement.

• The Portuguese monarchy relocated to Brazil to escape Napoleonic invasion, effectively making Brazil the center of the Portuguese Empire.

• Brazil's declaration of independence occurred when Prince Pedro, the Portuguese regent, declared Brazil independent from Portugal.

The concept of Natural Rights

• Natural Rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of government or societal structures.

• Thomas Hobbes believed that humans are inherently selfish and require a strong, centralized government to maintain order.

• John Locke argued for natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and advocated for limited government and the right to revolution.

• Edmund Burke was a conservative political theorist who emphasized tradition, gradual reform, and the importance of social institutions.

The Social Contract

• The Social Contract is a theory that suggests that individuals give up some freedoms to a government in exchange for protection and social order.

• European coffeehouses were important social and intellectual hubs during the Enlightenment, fostering discussion and the exchange of ideas.

• The American, French, and Haitian Revolutions shared common ideals of liberty, equality, and self-government.

The Congress of Vienna

• The Congress of Vienna was a meeting of European powers after the Napoleonic Wars to restore stability and re-establish the balance of power in Europe.

The “invisible hand”

• The "invisible hand" is a concept by Adam Smith describing how individual self-interest in a free market can unintentionally benefit society as a whole.

• New Amsterdam was renamed New York after it was taken over by the English from the Dutch.

• The causes of the Seven Years' War included colonial rivalries between Great Britain and France, particularly in North America.

• The British Raj was the period of British rule in India, following the Sepoy Mutiny and the dissolution of the British East India Company.

• The Canton system restricted foreign trade in China to the port of Canton, leading to trade imbalances and tensions with Western powers.

• African responses to the slave trade varied, ranging from resistance and warfare to participation as intermediaries and traders.

Mercantilism

• Mercantilism is an economic policy that emphasizes maximizing exports and minimizing imports to accumulate wealth for the state.

Capitalism

• Capitalism is an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production and the pursuit of profit.

• The cottage industry was a system of production in which goods were produced in people's homes, often supplementing agricultural work.

Taylorism

• Taylorism, or scientific management, is a management theory that seeks to improve efficiency by analyzing and standardizing work processes.