What Really Works in Elementary Education PDF

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Book Quality Bookshare is interested in improving book quality over time, if you can help us by providing any book quality feedback, we\'ll work hard to make those changes and republish the books. Begin Content Cover Image What Really Works in Elementary Education ii *This book is dedicated to Steve Holle.* *Steve is the Coordinator of Professional Development for the California State University, Northridge (CSUN) Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL). He is also an instructor for the Elementary Education department at CSUN. Steve has been an invaluable member of the CTL for years, bringing our content expertise to the community through practical professional development efforts. He is untiring, always positive, and seems to know everyone. He is truly committed to figuring out "what really works" in education, and we could not do what we do without him. Thank you, Steve.* What Really Works in Elementary Education Editors - **Wendy W. Murawski** - **Kathy Lynn Scott** ![SAGE logo](media/image2.jpeg) iv SAGE imprint FOR INFORMATION: Corwin A SAGE Company 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 \(800) 233-9936 www.corwin.com SAGE Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver's Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. 3 Church Street \#10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 Copyright © 2015 by Corwin All rights reserved. When forms and sample documents are included, their use is authorized only by educators, local school sites, and/or noncommercial or nonprofit entities that have purchased the book. Except for that usage, no part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. All trade names and trademarks recited, referenced, or reflected herein are the property of their respective owners who retain all rights thereto. Printed in the United States of America A catalog record of this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN: 978-1-4833-8666-9 This book is printed on acid-free paper. 15 16 17 18 19 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Acquisitions Editor: Jessica Allan Associate Editor: Kimberly Greenberg Editorial Assistant: Cesar Reyes Project Editor: Veronica Stapleton Hooper Copy Editor: Beth Hammond Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Proofreader: Dennis W. Webb Indexer: Jeanne R. Busemeyer Cover Designer: Gail Buschman Marketing Manager: Amanda Boudria v vi Contents 1. [Foreword](#s9781483390161i94) 2. [About the Editors](#s9781483390161i99) 3. [About the Contributors](#s9781483390161i110) 4. [Introduction](#s9781483390161i135) 5. **SECTION I:** **WHAT REALLY WORKS IN CONTENT** 1. [Chapter 1: Making Math Meaningful](#s9781483390161i148) 2. [Chapter 2: Rewarding Reading Practices](#s9781483390161i241) 3. [Chapter 3: Teaching Writing Right](#s9781483390161i357) 4. [Chapter 4: Successful Social Studies](#s9781483390161i456) 5. [Chapter 5: Stellar STE(A)M Strategies](#s9781483390161i565) 6. [Chapter 6: Awe-Inspiring Arts Integration](#s9781483390161i695) 6. **SECTION II:** **WHAT REALLY WORKS IN INSTRUCTION** 7. [Chapter 7: Tuning in With Technology](#s9781483390161i823) 8. [Chapter 8: Perfectly Positive Behavior](#s9781483390161i943) 9. [Chapter 9: Classy Classroom Management](#s9781483390161i1076) 10. [Chapter 10: Cool Cooperative Learning](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i1178) 11. [Chapter 11: Unique Universal Design for Learning](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i1272) 12. [Chapter 12: Incredible Inclusion](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i1383) 13. [Chapter 13: Creative Co-Teaching](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i1498) 14. [Chapter 14: Amazing Assessment](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i1597) 7. **SECTION III:** **WHAT REALLY WORKS WITH SPECIAL POPULATIONS** 15. [Chapter 15: Great Gifted Education](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i1718) 16. [Chapter 16: Engaging English Language Learners](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i1827) 17. [Chapter 17: Addressing Autism Spectrum Disorder](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i1957) 18. [Chapter 18: Developing Deaf Education](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i2071) 19. [Chapter 19: Superb Social Skills Instruction](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i2151) 20. [Chapter 20: Fantastic Family Collaboration](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i2252) 8. [Index](What_Really_Works_in_Element00003.docx#s9781483390161i2356) []{#s9781483390161i94.anchor} vii Foreword I remember it like it was yesterday. My first day of teaching, that is. It was September 1996 in Room 323 at John Burroughs High School in Burbank, California. I was ready to face my very own class of real live tenth graders and teach them the mysteries of English. My seating charts, the ones I spent a ridiculous amount of time perfecting, were beautifully printed out. The walls papered in sunny colors with eye-catching posters tacked artfully here and there. In my arms, a sheaf of terrifically important, hot off the copier, papers ready to pass out. On me, a polished, smart-looking outfit with sensible, made-to-last-all-day shoes. I had a megawatt smile and enough enthusiasm to fill a dozen classrooms. I was SO ready. By second period, my naïve ideas of preparedness met the gritty reality of classroom dynamics, and I was exhausted just trying to keep up. By third, I was terrified; by fourth, exhausted; and by sixth, ready to walk out and never return. If you would have asked me, on the eve of my first day as a real teacher, if I was ready, really ready, I'd have given you a hearty yes. And that's the strange magic of teacher preparation programs. I left mine certain that I'd done the important work of becoming ready to teach. I'd had experiences and opportunities and assignments that had truly shown me not just how to teach, but how to teach skillfully and well. At least, that's what I thought. And I wasn't wrong. You DO walk in ready, but an actual classroom is a remarkable and very real crucible that has its own lessons for you, lessons you cannot learn until you are the teacher. And here's what's utterly wonderful about being the one in charge in the room. No matter how ready you are, how prepared you feel, you don't really know a thing. But you learn, and you learn fast. You see, the growth curve in our profession is enormous. You are better at 10:00 a.m. than you were at 8:00 a.m., and by 2:00 p.m. your lesson is amazing. On Tuesday, you're much better than you were on Monday. And Friday? Friday is a gift you give your students \... you're that good. And don't get me started on the first day of your SECOND year of teaching. On that day, you are truly the rock star teacher you've grown to be. Naturally, as is the order of things in teaching, in walk your new students viii and a completely new dynamic presents itself. All the skills and talent you brought with you doesn't seem to work the same magic on these kids and back to square one you go trying to figure it all out. It's alarming and wonderful at the same time, which is why our job forces us to stay on our toes every single day. After 18 years of this, there's only one thing I know for certain, and it's this: I don't know very much for certain. There has not been one way to teach my classes or one strict set of ideas or procedures that worked every year or with every group of students. There just isn't. What I do know is that I have needed to fill my metaphorical teacher toolbox with every possible tool, tip, technique, idea, and strategy possible so that when new situations in my classrooms arise, I have a deep set of possible options from which to grab as I try to teach my way through. The idea of the teacher's toolbox coupled with the gritty determination to grow and get better by staying open to new ideas and best practices are what turns good teachers into great ones. And that's where this book comes in. In the pages ahead, you'll learn from some of the country's best educators about what REALLY works in classrooms. From their experiences comes wisdom along with a whole host of tried and true, practical, hands-on solutions for you to use in your classroom. That's another one of the perks of our professions---our close proximity to other practitioners and our easy access to the greatness that exists in the classrooms right down the hall. I don't know where I'd be if I didn't have Traci, Karen, Stefanie, Joe, Jim, or Alex to call on for ideas, hope, inspiration, or even just a shoulder to cry on. I am who I am because of the collection of ideas and skills I've gathered from my peers, filtered through my own philosophy and sensibilities, and put to use in my classroom. In that sense, I'm a patchwork quilt of all the great things I've learned from other teachers, but how I patched those pieces together makes me the unique teacher I am proud to be. That's how we grow. Your growth into greatness simply depends on your community of support. This collection of great ideas about what REALLY works in classrooms is another great tool to add to your toolbox; perhaps it's the greatest tool of all. That you can decide for yourself, but it's important you have it as you set out to create or transform your classroom into the vibrant and engaging learning space for all of your students. I wish I'd had a book like this before I stepped into Room 323 all those years ago. I'm glad I have it now. Rebecca Mieliwocki *2012 National Teacher of the Year* []{#s9781483390161i99.anchor} ix About the Editors ![Image 1](media/image3.jpeg) ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Wendy W. Murawski,** ::: PhD, is the Michael D. Eisner Endowed Chair and Executive Director of the Center for Teaching and Learning at California State University, Northridge. She is a tenured Full Professor in the Department of Special Education, as well as the past President of the Teacher Education Division (TED) of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). Wendy is proud to have been the Distinguished Teacher Educator of the Year for the state of California (which is a pretty big state!). She has authored numerous books, chapters, articles, and handbooks in the areas of co-teaching, collaboration, inclusion, and differentiation. Wendy owns her own educational consulting company (2 TEACH LLC), loves to travel and speak nationally and internationally, and is a frequently requested keynote speaker. Wendy would like to publically admit that, although she is keenly aware of the research on child development and best practice, she allows her 10-year-old son Kiernan to eat way too many sweets. She's working on that. Image 2 ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Kathy Lynn Scott,** ::: PhD, is the Center Administrative Analyst for the Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) at California State University, Northridge. Kathy was trained as an "old school" darkroom photographer, but she fell in love with all things to do with education. After conducting research on art education and adult education in England and coordinating research on learning disabilities in New Jersey, Kathy jumped from coast to coast, finding a new home with the CTL where she gets to do a little bit of everything related to education. When not acting as the "glue" for the CTL (as Wendy calls her) and when she finds the time, she collects passport stamps at National Parks. But more often than not, she's just relaxing at home, eating something with entirely too much garlic, watching *Jeopardy!,* and shouting out the (not always correct) answers. x About the CTL The CSUN Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) is the research and professional development hub of the California State University, Northridge's Michael D. Eisner College of Education. The CTL was created through a generous endowment by the Eisner Foundation in 2002. The CTL's focus continues to be improving the education of all learners through the betterment of preservice and inservice teachers, counselors, administrators, educational therapists, and other educational specialists. The CTL provides local, state, and national professional development across a variety of topics and is dedicated to bringing the best evidence-based practices to educators in a practical manner. The CTL is committed to "what really works" in education! []{#s9781483390161i110.anchor} xi About the Contributors Making Math Meaningful ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Nancy O'Rode** ::: , PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Michael D. Eisner College of Education at California State University, Northridge. When she is not teaching mathematics methods and curriculum for elementary schools, she is Zumba dancing, kikoy collecting, bird watching, chocolate inhaling, and is a life-time member of the Jane Austen Society. Rewarding Reading Practices ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Renee Ziolkowska** ::: , EdD, is an Associate Professor at California State University, Northridge. She has worked as a classroom teacher and a reading specialist. Her teaching and research interests center around literacy. She enjoys traveling, trying new foods, and devouring books. She maintains a fitness program by attempting to keep up with her 6-year-old daughter, Sophia. Teaching Writing Right ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Kathleen Dudden Rowlands** ::: , PhD, teaches in the Department of Secondary Education and directs the Cal State Northridge Writing Project. When she can sneak away for a few days, she enjoys camping and hiking in Death Valley or Joshua Tree, spoiling her grandchildren, or checking up on the school of Humuhumunukunukuapua'a (reef trigger fish) that live in Shark's Cove on Oahu. Successful Social Studies ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Joyce H. Burstein** ::: , EdD, is a Professor of Social Studies Education and the Director of Community Engagement at California State University, Northridge. She is the recipient of the university's Distinguished Teaching Award and author of several works on social studies and arts education. After hours, you can catch her in her role as party mixologist. xii **Greg Knotts** , PhD, is an Associate Professor of Elementary Education and the Director of the Queer Studies Program at California State University, Northridge. He has published and presented extensively on social studies, the arts, and LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) issues in elementary education. He dreamed of being a Solid Gold Dancer; okay \... he's still dreaming \... but now it's for *So You Think You Can Dance.* Stellar STE(A)M Strategies ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Erica Rood** ::: is a veteran teacher who is convinced that all children can learn and deserve to learn. As a national finalist for the Presidential Awards for Excellence in Mathematics and Science Teaching (we'll find out in 2016!), Ms. Rood is currently continuing her education as a member of NASA's Endeavor Leadership program through California State University, Northridge's STEM Masters Program. She is currently researching arts integration in a variety of STEM areas and one day hopes to be the first ballerina to travel to space! Awe-Inspiring Arts Integration ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Mary Wolf** ::: , PhD, is the Director and Assistant Professor of Art Education at Daemen College. For 20 years, she's taught art and advocated for the arts at a variety of levels in a variety of settings including elementary, middle, high school, magnet school, alternative school, home school, adult education, higher education, and at international, national, state, and local conferences. She secretly wants to teach and represent the arts as a professor on the sitcom, The Big Bang Theory. ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Ann Fontaine Lewis** ::: , MEd, K--12 Content Specialist and Professional Developer in Delaware, is a former classroom teacher, administrator, curriculum supervisor, and a current adjunct professor who presents nationally on literacy, curriculum and instruction, assessment, classroom management, and arts integration. She spends her "spare" time training and riding horses, feeding her addiction to reading and writing, and enjoying her family, farm, and friends. ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Beth Thompson** ::: is a visual arts teacher at Dundalk Elementary School in Baltimore County and has taught visual art education in Maryland for over 30 years. She's presented at state and national conferences advocating for S.T.E.A.M. and was named Maryland State Art Educator of the Year, 2014. On a daily basis, Beth captures the imagination and energy of children of all ages---including her husband Albert. Tuning in With Technology ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Lisa A. Dieker** ::: is a Pegasus Professor and Lockheed Martin Eminent Scholar Chair at the University of Central Florida. In addition, she directs xiii the doctoral program in special education and is one of the creators of the virtual classroom TeachLivE. She has no spare time these days even as an empty nester, but when she does, she enjoys her two crazy cats (one will ignore you, and the other will attack you)---noting her failure in behavior management with her pets. ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Lauren Delisio** ::: is a doctoral candidate in Exceptional Education at the University of Central Florida. She is a native New Yorker with 9 years of teaching experience in both general and special education classrooms. Her areas of research interest include identifying effective academic interventions for students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms, especially in STEM content areas. A true Type-A personality, Lauren enjoys creating to-do lists, cleaning, and waiting on the prince of the house, her tiny, pampered Pomeranian. ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Caitlyn A. Bukaty** ::: is a doctoral scholar of Exceptional Education at the University of Central Florida. A native of Buffalo, New York, she's still thawing out! As a professional educator and former ballet dancer, Caitlyn infuses her passion for the arts with her commitment to students. She is especially interested in postsecondary transition for students with disabilities. The rest of Caitlyn's time is consumed by catering to the every whim of her two rescue dogs, Giselle and Bukets. Perfectly Positive Behavior ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Brittany Hott** ::: , PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Special Education at Texas A&M University-Commerce. While Dr. Hott spends much of her time focused on developing and testing interventions to support secondary students, with or at-risk for, learning and behavioral disabilities, she has been observed running in circles---literally! Dr. Hott is a Boston and New York marathon qualifier and multiple ironman finisher. ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Laura Isbell** ::: , PhD, is an Assistant Professor at Texas A&M University-Commerce. Her research interests include curriculum development and the impact of RTI on students and teachers. When she is not busy working, Laura enjoys watching the Green Bay Packers. Go Pack go! ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Jennifer Walker** ::: , PhD, is an Assistant Professor at the University of Mary Washington in Virginia. Her research interests include students with emotional and behavior disabilities and positive behavior supports. Recently, Jennifer moved to a house on 11 acres where she is trying to figure out how to raise chickens without actually having to touch them or clean their coop. Classy Classroom Management ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Luisa Palomo Hare** ::: is a kindergarten teacher in a high-poverty urban school in Omaha, Nebraska. She is endorsed in English as a Second xiv Language and has her masters in Educational Administration. Luisa has been recognized by Warren Buffet as a recipient for the Buffet Outstanding Teacher Award and is the 2012 Nebraska Teacher of the Year. Luisa's biggest surprise of all came when she adopted her Goldendoodle, Sadie, and promptly fell head over heels in love with all things dog! ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Wendy W. Murawski** ::: , PhD, is a Professor in Special Education and the Executive Director and Eisner Endowed Chair for the Center for Teaching and Learning at California State University, Northridge. She's published and presented extensively on co-teaching, but when she's not traveling or working, she is creatively decorating cupcakes. Cool Cooperative Learning ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Scott Mandel** ::: , PhD, has been a classroom teacher for 30 years. A National Board Certified Teacher, he has written 11 teacher education books, including *Cooperative Work Groups: Preparing Students for the Real World* and *Improving Test Scores: A Practical Approach for Teachers and Administrators.* He wants to write a book about champion sports teams in his hometown of Cleveland, but he's still waiting for material. Unique Universal Design for Learning ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Tamarah M. Ashton** ::: , PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Special Education at California State University, Northridge and a frequent presenter for the Speakers Bureau through CSUN's Center for Teaching and Learning and with 2Teach LLC. When not running the graduate program in Special Education, Dr. Ashton is on stage in numerous theatrical productions waiting to be discovered. Still... waiting.... Incredible Inclusion ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Amy Hanreddy** ::: , PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Special Education at California State University, Northridge where she teaches classes related to inclusive and collaborative practices that benefit all students. Amy has worked as a special education teacher and an administrator at an inclusive school and has presented on a range of topics related to inclusive education with a particular focus on students with significant support needs. When she is avoiding deadlines, Amy is busy posting cat and kid pictures on Facebook. ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Erin Studer** ::: , EdD, is the Executive Director of CHIME Institute in Los Angeles, California. CHIME is a national model for inclusive education and serves over 700 children from the Los Angeles area each year. Dr. Studer has taught special education and general education in K--12 and also has taught preservice educators at the university level. He hails from xv the great state of Iowa and, like many from his native state, spent many years wrestling. Though he no longer grapples, he enjoys wearing his wrestling shoes around the house because of how cool they look. Creative Co-Teaching ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Wendy W. Murawski** ::: , PhD, is the Executive Director and Eisner Endowed Chair for the Center for Teaching and Learning at California State University, Northridge. She's written four books, as well as chapters, articles, and software... all on co-teaching. In fact, she and her coauthors, Tamarah Ashton, Claire Hughes, Sally Spencer, and Lisa Dieker, have been extending the co-teaching culture to co-shopping, upon which they are intent on becoming experts. Amazing Assessment ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Brooke Blanks** ::: , PhD, is an Assistant Professor of Special Education at Radford University. She is particularly interested in inclusive classrooms in rural schools. When she is not teaching, writing, or supervising interns, Dr. Blanks enjoys running (slowly) and learning to play more than three chords on her guitar. Great Gifted Education ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Claire E. Hughes** ::: , PhD, lives her life in twos: She is an Associate Professor at the College of Coastal Georgia in a dual-certification Elementary/Special Education teacher preparation program and received her doctorate in both gifted education and special education from the College of William and Mary. She specializes in twice-exceptional children; lives on St. Simons Island, but works in Brunswick on the mainland; and has two children, two dogs, two cats, two fish and is one half of a two-parent team. Engaging English Language Learners ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Shartriya Collier** ::: , PhD, is currently an Associate Professor, Director of the Los Angeles Times Literacy Center and Graduate Advisor in the Department of Elementary Education at California State University, Northridge. Dr. Collier's personal teaching motto is, "transform the world, one mind at a time." When she is not teaching students or working with families in the community, she is a professional deejay and backup singer at local lounges and events in and around the Los Angeles area. Addressing Autism Spectrum Disorder ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Emily Iland** ::: , MA, is an award-winning author, advocate, filmmaker, researcher, and leader in the autism field. She travels extensively conducting xvi training in English and Spanish on almost every autism-related topic. When she is not exhausted from doing all that stuff, she loves to research family history, which is not as boring as it sounds, honest! Developing Deaf Education ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Flavia Fleischer** ::: , PhD, is currently the Chair of the Deaf Studies Department at California State University, Northridge. She is an activist who is very interested in fighting against oppression of all minorities, especially oppression of Deaf people through her research and teaching. When Flavia is not handling department needs, teaching, or presenting, she is either out on her crazy training runs or in the kitchen experimenting with new recipes. ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Will Garrow** ::: , PhD, is from upstate New York, where he was first introduced to the Deaf community through his career as a professional snowboarder. As a faculty member at California State University, Northridge his teaching mainly focuses on how oppression works in American society, Deaf culture, and ASL linguistics. When Will is not teaching, he can be found either on the snow in the mountains or splatting balls on the racquetball court. ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Rachel Friedman Narr** ::: , PhD, is a Professor in Special Education/Deaf Education at California State University, Northridge. She's published and presented nationally on reading with DHH students and parent-to-parent support for families raising DHH children. She's best known for her truthiness and well... her husband's amazing skills in the kitchen. Superb Social Skills Instruction ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Michelle Dean** ::: is an Assistant Professor in Special Education at California State University, Channel Islands. She received her PhD from the University of California, Los Angeles. Michelle's research focuses on the social engagement of children with disabilities at school. At home, Michelle changes diapers, plays "I'm gonna get you," and cooks in real and pretend kitchens. Prior to becoming a professor and a mom, Michelle was a special education teacher for the Los Angeles Unified School District. Fantastic Family Collaboration ::: {.DefinitionTerm} **Susan Auerbach** ::: , PhD, is a Professor in the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Department at California State University, Northridge. She's published and presented extensively on family engagement, school leadership, and school-community partnerships. She enjoys relaxing with \[free range\] chicken TV in the backyard---the curious antics of Buffy, Little Red, Skittery, and Peck. []{#s9781483390161i135.anchor} 1 Introduction What you have at your fingertips is a compilation of chapters written by individuals who not only know the theory and research in their various fields of expertise, but also know teaching *and* teachers. They are in classrooms across the nation, learning and adding to our knowledge of what really works---and unfortunately what does not work---with students today. There are so many experts nationally and internationally who write about and study different areas of education. What was important to us as we invited authors to write for this book is that they provide us with work that is timely, practical, to the point, and written so that you would want to pick it up and use it time and time again. We asked authors to talk to you, not to preach or write as if this were a research journal. We wanted humor and realism throughout the best practices and substantive content. And we think we got it! You may notice that there are some areas of redundancy. For example, many authors ask teachers to stop talking so much, to give students more choice, to individualize and differentiate, and to connect with parents. Rather than pulling these items out, we left them to help emphasize and highlight tips that experts from differing frames of reference share. On the other hand, you might notice some discrepancies among chapters. While person first language (e.g., "the boy with the learning disability" as opposed to the "learning disabled boy") is important for many of the authors (and honestly, for us as the editors), we respected the fact that fields such as Deaf education and Gifted education don't use person-first language and instead refer to the Deaf child or the gifted student. We left those also to depict the variety in the field. How do you use this book? That's up to you. You can read it from beginning to end or you can pick and choose. We organized it so that our content areas are first, followed by instructional strategies and pedagogy. In the third section, we include information on special populations. While some chapters may be more or less relevant to you and your teaching, we hope you consider reading them all. You may be surprised what you pick up in a chapter on working with English language learners, even if you haven't yet had any of those students in your class yet! 2 We'd also like to point out that we have interspersed quite a few "Making Connections" boxes throughout the chapters. This is so you can see how all of these chapters interrelate and support one another. If you want, you can make this a "Choose-Your-Own-Adventure" book and follow the Making Connections boxes throughout the text! Want to keep learning? We certainly hope you do. If so, please look at the plethora of references our authors have included and cited from. In many cases, we also provide a "Recommended Readings" section but be aware, if an item was cited in the References section, it is not in the Recommended Readings section as well. We hope you will know the author recommends it by the fact that it was important enough to reference. We must thank each and every one of our authors for their hard work on this book. When we approached them and said, "We want you to write a practical chapter on your topic, but please keep it mainly focused on bulleting the Do's and Don'ts... oh right, and keep it really short," we had mixed responses. Some replied, "Heck yeah! I could do that in my sleep," while others said, "Just a few pages? On this huge topic? Are you crazy?" But they all took up the challenge and came through! They, like us, felt this book was important enough to get out there. They, like us, knew that teachers are busy and are understandably looking for something short and sweet that boils down the key information in a quick to grab format. They, like us, are passionate about education and improving what we are doing for all kids. All of them. So we thank our authors. (And yes, we owe you all a drink!) We must also thank the Eisner Foundation for creating and supporting the Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) at California State University, Northridge (CSUN). Their vision of ongoing professional development for urban education has enabled us to create this book in the first place. Our Dean at the CSUN Michael D. Eisner College of Education, Dr. Michael Spagna, also continues to constantly encourage us to pursue cutting edge practices in education and to remain the professional development and research hub of the college. We would like to make a "shout out" to Rick Goldman, Marcia Rea, and Amy Sheldon, who were with the CTL when we first conceptualized "What Really Works"---we hope you three are proud of where we've come! Last, but never ever least, we both would like to thank our CTL student assistants, Ashot Nikoyan and Timothy Nang, for their incredible support as we worked diligently on this text (while trying to concurrently run about 17 other projects and events). Special thanks to CTL student assistant Sam Garley, for providing indispensible behind-the-scenes help. You three are amazing, and we are grateful you have joined our CTL family. ![Image 45](media/image5.jpeg) 3 Section I What Really Works in Content Image 3 []{#s9781483390161i148.anchor} 4 1 Making Math Meaningful Nancy O'Rode *California State University, Northridge* What Really Works In Math in The Elementary Classroom Understanding for Every Child The last 25 years have brought a universe of changes to the field of mathematics education. We need to stop and celebrate the accomplishments of so many educators working together to improve outcomes for children. We have moved a mountain here. Rather than continuing the disagreements from the 1980s and 1990s between reform mathematics and back to basics, international studies have pushed U.S. educators to agree on higher standards for all students. Yay for us! The 1990s ushered in a series of important international studies that scraped the skin off the notion that the United States was leading the world in producing talented mathematicians. There are many brilliant teachers and students in the United States, but we now know it is a fallacy to state that we are providing a first-rate education to our children when compared to the top-ten high-performing nations. International studies, 5 most notably, the TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study), looked closely at U.S. classrooms and found several factors that need to be improved (National Center for Education Statistics, 2013; Schmidt, McKnight, & Raizen, 1996; Stigler & Heibert, 1999). But rather than pack it up and go home, we have, as a group of educators, come up with a vision and a plan for improvement. Double-yay. Equity is the overarching goal in teaching and learning mathematics because no matter how many research studies and findings are published, it will not make a difference in the lives of children if they have not been given an opportunity to learn mathematics with understanding. The *Principles and Standards for School Mathematics* (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989, 2000) is a clarion call for educators to pay attention and work toward mathematical understanding for all children. We need to provide high-quality, worthwhile tasks for learning mathematics for every child and at every grade level (Stein, Smith, Henningsen, & Silver, 2000). Teachers can hardly be asked to change the way they teach if they continue to use the same materials that were used when they were children. We need high-quality resources that help teachers deliver demanding lessons that require students to explain solutions. Superficially, it seems that we now have many technologies to improve children's mathematical understanding, but most of these applications are only flashier flashcards. We need to have children practice the basic facts, but only after they have explored and understood the concepts. The essence of good teaching is providing engaging lessons that facilitate learning mathematical concepts before learning the procedures. Assessments are another key to improving mathematics learning. In the last decade when high-stakes assessments were created to evaluate learning and teaching, we went off the rails in teaching to the test. Teachers, with the pressures of testing and the resultant evaluation, left what they knew to be solid pedagogical ideas to instead cram procedures into their students' heads. This was unfortunate because many research studies showed that children do as well or better if activities that introduce and extend conceptual ideas are provided rather than beginning with the procedures (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000; see also Grouws & Cebulla, 2000; Hiebert, 2003). Feeding students math facts without the *why* is like giving a daily survival diet of crumbs without the enjoyment of the feast. Many school districts around the country have subsequently signed up for new 21st century assessments that ask children to explain their thinking rather than pick one choice out of four on a multiple-choice test. The new assessments focus on the big picture rather than a diet of crumbs. The current trends in mathematics teaching and learning tell us that we need to change the way we are teaching, which will change the way 6 children are learning mathematics. We also need to change the way we assess learning (Hertzog & O'Rode, 2011). Ultimately, the underlying principle of every teacher who teaches math needs to be that of ensuring every child has an understanding of rigorous, useful, connected mathematics. Though we now have principles, standards, and priorities that are integrated, rigorous, and meaningful, teachers need to be able to implement these ideals each day in the classroom. We each need to take a long hard look at what we, as individuals, are doing in the classroom, and it will take brutal honesty to evaluate and change the way we teach. To move forward will require collaboration, the sharing of ideas, and lots of trial and error. We can do this. ![Image 4](media/image7.jpeg) **Making Connections** Check out [Chapter 14](What_Really_Works_in_Element00002.docx#s9781483390161i1597) on Assessment Key Research You Need to Know About Teaching Elementary Mathematics Common misconceptions about math are that it is cut and dried and easy to teach, that it is a universal language and has to do with correct answers, or that anyone can teach math if they like numbers. Not so fast! The following research-based ideas are being used successfully in elementary classrooms today and should cause many to rethink what math teaching is about. Deborah Ball and her colleagues got it right when they wrote *Knowing Mathematics for Teaching: Who Knows Mathematics Well Enough to Teach Third Grade and How Can We Decide?* (Ball, Hill, & Bass, 2005). They break down the work of teaching and pinpoint various tasks that successful teachers need to accomplish in everyday lessons, such as analyzing errors, choosing representations, evaluating mathematical explanations, designing homework and quizzes, and evaluating student work, to name a few. Who better to define the work that teachers do than teachers, the authors ask. They call for a professional knowledge base that is backed with evidence of what it means to know mathematics for teaching (Ball, 1993; Ball & Bass, 2003). When teachers have this specialized knowledge for mathematics teaching, findings show student achievement scores increase significantly (Hill, Rowan, & Ball, 2005). This specialized knowledge includes using invented strategies, open-ended questions, high-cognitive demand tasks, and discussing concepts before procedures, which are discussed here. Other important techniques, such as using a diversity of representations and energizing classroom discourse are critical as well, and teachers are encouraged to research these ideas in *Putting Research Into Practice in the Elementary Grades* (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2002). **Invented strategies** are procedures that children create or invent without the teacher directly instructing the child. Children have traditionally learned procedures for carrying out calculations from step-by-step 7 instruction led by the teacher. Because standard algorithms are conceptually dense procedures created over many, many years, students (and adults) often have a difficult time understanding why the algorithm works. Carpenter, Franke, Jacobs, Fennema, and Empson (1998) studied children in Grades 1 through 3 over several years and found that almost all children could invent strategies. The children who used invented strategies before learning about the standard algorithm gained a deeper understanding of place value, were more successful in carrying out the calculations, and made fewer errors. Students were flexible in using a variety of strategies to solve problems, using both the standard algorithm and invented strategies. One important tool students can use is an Empty Number Line to illustrate their invented strategies. (See page 14 for examples.) Teachers should promote the use of invented strategies in their classrooms by asking children to solve problems in two or more ways and highlighting different strategies during class discussions. Note that the word *algorithm* is not found in the Common Core Standards until Grade 3, which reflects recent research on invented strategies. **Open-ended problems** are problems that can be solved in more than one way. There are many ways to provide open-ended questions: create questions with more than one solution, ask for two or more strategies to solve the problem, require an explanation, or ask for two ways to represent the solution. If you allow students to make sense of a problem in their own way, they feel capable of doing math. Open-ended problems are also a good way to differentiate so that the gifted children and students with disabilities can be successful. If this is new to your classroom, persevere. Students will push back because it is so much more comfortable to follow someone else's thinking than to produce your own. When we focus the attention on students' various ideas, they are less fearful of making mistakes. (See page 12 for examples.) **High-cognitive demand tasks** are worthwhile, high-level, challenging problems for the mathematics classroom that are important to develop students' ideas of what it means to do mathematics. Henningsen and Stein (1997) identify classrooms that scaffold learning, build upon prior knowledge, and have sustained pressure for explanation and meaning when using high-level tasks. In other classrooms, where the challenging parts of the problem were removed, or the focus shifted to the correctness of the answer, students' thinking declined toward using procedures and the classwork had little connection to the mathematical concepts. Complexity of a task is often reduced when students press teachers for the procedure and teachers respond by showing students how to do the difficult parts of the task (Henningsen, 2000). High-cognitive demand tasks should require student accountability, encouraging students to explore and use relevant knowledge in appropriate ways, and may create some anxiety for the student because of the creative nature of the solution process (Smith & Stein, 1998). (For self-reflection guide on teaching mathematics, see page 14.) 8 Pesek and Kirshner (2000) showed that we do have the time to *teach for understanding.* In an experimental study, these researchers gave half of the fifth-grade classrooms an extra five lessons for procedural skill development in area and perimeter. These students then joined the other classrooms, which were given three conceptual lessons on area and perimeter. After assessing all students through interviews and written tests, they found that students who had only three conceptual lessons knew area and perimeter concepts far better than the students who were given an extra five procedural lessons in addition to the three conceptual lessons. What? Three lessons can be more effective than eight lessons? The take away here is that teaching concepts *before* procedures improves understanding, ultimately saving time. We *do* have the time to teach for conceptual understanding. You can build a sandcastle every day, but it is gone in 12 hours. We need to do the hard work of building concrete foundations if we want something permanent. So dig deep, concentrate on the concepts first, and teach for understanding. What You Need to Avoid at All Costs in Teaching Mathematics in Elementary School Image 5 If I had a magic wand, I would wave it around and shout, "*Expelliarmus*" every time a teacher does any of the following. Teachers - ✖ **STOP telling children how to solve math problems.** Giving students the steps to solve a problem does not produce understanding. Research shows that when teachers give the steps, it produces very limited memorized procedures without understanding. What, you say? I learned math this way. Yes, me too. But we need to stop this self-perpetuating cycle of innumeracy. Math should make sense to children and big people too. 9 - ✖ **STOP relying on math textbooks.** Textbooks have low-level, irrelevant problems, or, I should say, practice exercises that do not give children rigorous math problem-solving situations called for in today's Common Core era. That's the hard part; as teachers, we are trying to up the game here, but most of us learned math by the *gorge and regurgitate* method. We need to seek materials elsewhere and create our own teaching communities by sharing what works. - ✖ **STOP telling children if they are right or wrong.** Once you admit that a solution is correct, children stop thinking about the mathematics involved. Don't be the all-knowing source for correctness---children need to make sense of the mathematics and determine for themselves if their answers are right or wrong. - ✖ **STOP giving fill-in-the-blank worksheets.** Yes, students need to practice basic number facts---but find enjoyable ways for children to practice. Engage children in activities that reveal concepts and procedures rather than individual worksheets. Think about it---which would you rather do? - ✖ **STOP giving timed tests.** As Marilyn Burns (2000) says, "Timed tests make no instructional sense" (p. 157). Timed tests do not promote sense-making approaches. Most adults begin their negative associations with math at third grade timed tests. I have asked over 2,000 preservice teachers about their experiences with mathematics, and timed tests in third grade is the number one reason they loathe mathematics, with ability grouping coming in a close second. The new 21st century achievement tests will not have strict time limits. - ✖ **STOP wasting time on chapter tests and reviewing for chapter tests.** Some teachers give up 2 days a week to testing and review rather than learning. Give short, matter-of-fact quizzes or short tests. Short evaluations that are framed as: "Here is what I want you to learn. Have you learned it? Tomorrow I will be asking you to do this. Let's find out if you can." Then ask students how confident they are that they can solve or explain the idea. This is not to say that you only want quizzes. Good teachers integrate valuable and varied assessments into the work that the students are already doing. Administrators - ✖ **STOP looking for quiet classrooms where children are completing worksheets.** Teachers and children need to be engaged in solving problems---and this is a messy, noisy process. - ✖ **STOP micromanaging the length of daily math lessons.** Give teaching professionals the courtesy of being able to spend 1 hour and 15 minutes on a math lesson, if it is called for, and making up the time for other subjects in the next few days. Flexibility is the key. - ✖ **STOP focusing on scores.** You are a manager of people, not test scores. So concentrate on the humans under your care. Feed. Water. Provide support. Prune when needed. Celebrate growth and good teaching. Increases in test scores only come from effective teaching. - ✖ **DON'T even think about equating scores from your state accountability assessments to the new assessments for Common Core.** Higher performance standards. Different test quality, testing methods, and proficiency levels. They are not comparable---so don't go there. 10 Strategies for Success in Teaching Elementary Mathematics ![Image 6](media/image9.jpeg) "Be careful what you teach children---they will learn it." This is a quote from a math educator and dear friend. If we teach children to solve simplistic, mind-numbing exercises, that is what they will learn to do. If we teach children to fill in the blanks, that is what they will learn. If we teach children to choose the best answer out of four choices, that is what they will become good at doing. If we want critical thinkers who can creatively find solutions to complex problems, then we need to ask students to solve high-cognitive demand problems. Teachers, DO This - ✓ **CELEBRATE divergent thinking by asking all students to find another way to solve a problem.** Asking students to listen to and accept other's solutions, or argue and disagree, emphasizes reasoning. This strengthens the caliber of connections needed for deeply understanding a math concept (Fosnot, 1996). - ✓ **USE open-ended questions, and make solving the problem the feature of the math lesson.** Feature multiple ways of knowing so students will concentrate on the process of solving rather than the product. Ask for other ways to solve a problem. "Does anyone have a different way to solve this problem? Let's hear from you." - ✓ **ASK for explanations and don't give up.** It is easier if you begin the year demanding explanations. And, of course, an explanation for 5 + 1 isn't the point. High-cognitive demand, rigorous problems for all age groups will lead to several solution strategies and hence explanations will be a natural part of classroom discussions. - ✓ **ENCOURAGE argument.** Yes, argument. The best classes occur when students are investing an effort to find out who is right. These can be edge-of-seat discussions. Who really *is* correct? Can both solutions be right? How can that be? 11 - ✓ **USE blank paper.** Hold students responsible for organizing their own thinking. We do too much for students sometimes. Giving out pages that have predetermined work spaces or blanks to fill in answers does not allow children to develop their own way to show solutions---ownership of the solution is then transferred to the teacher or worksheet. - ✓ **If you use a traditional textbook, USE it as a resource for exercises and homework practice.** Traditional texts are set up for minimal thinking and minimal student responsibility for learning. (There are also minimal difficulties for teachers.) Excellent teachers go beyond the minimal expectations and work at creating lessons that push students' thinking. Parents expect practice, and children do need accuracy and fluency for number facts, so have students practice at home. - ✓ **SUBSTITUTE appreciation in place of praise.** Substitute "thank-you" in place of "great work." Excellent teachers bite their tongue before saying "good job" or "right." The children, for the most part, ignore and dismiss meaningless praise and stop thinking about the mathematics. An appreciation of the effort children give in solving problems has more lasting importance than evaluating the correctness of the answer (Willingham, 2009). - ✓ **FINALLY, one of the most demanding aspects of teaching mathematics is tying the divergent ideas from students together to summarize the learning.** This is when you make explicit connections from students' ideas to the learning objective. You mention ideas from each group and restate explicitly how each idea fits into the overall learning objective. It's powerful and satisfying for students to know that their efforts had a purpose. This is also time to introduce ideas for tomorrow's problem-solving! Administrators, DO This - ✓ **SUPPORT your district, teachers, and parents by explaining upfront how the new state assessments will not be comparable to the old state assessments.** Tell all constituents to expect an increase in rigor, an increased focus on conceptual understanding, and many hours of work to meet these new standards. It will take time and resources to prepare students for the new assessment format. Children who excel at drill and practice may not do well on assessments that ask for explanations. Parents need to hear this. Have high expectations and give strong support to teachers during this transition and innovation. Encourage your teachers. Perseverance in problem-solving isn't only for students; everyone needs to persevere to support these new rigorous standards (Larson & Leinwand, 2013). 12 Why Use Open-Ended Problems in Mathematics? - Provide Multiple Entry Points for students - Differentiate Instruction for many developmental levels - Meet needs of both struggling learners and promising students who need challenges The following chart gives 17 examples of Open-Ended Problems. 13 Table 1 --- ---------------------------- --------- Type of Open-Ended Problem Example --- ---------------------------- --------- Resources Kiberi, M. S., & Smith, N. L. (2003). Turning traditional textbook problems into open-ended problems. *Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 9*(3), 186--192. Myren, C. (2013). *Posing open-ended questions in the primary math classroom.* Bellingham, WA: Math Perspectives. Small, M. (2009). *Good questions: Great ways to differentiate mathematics instruction.* New York, NY: Teachers College Press. 14 So How Am I Doing? A Self-Reflection on Teaching Mathematics Provide specific examples from a math lesson you recently taught for the questions below. ![Table 3](media/image11.jpeg) +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | What Really Worked? | Shoulda/Coulda | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Problem-Solving** | | | | | | | | Did I actively engage | | | | students in | | | | problem-solving? | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Explanations** | | | | | | | | Did I have students | | | | make sense of math by | | | | explaining & | | | | reasoning? | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Representations** | | | | | | | | Did the class use | | | | multiple ways to | | | | represent ideas? | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Connections** | | | | | | | | Did you make | | | | real-world | | | | connections? | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Copyright © 2015 by Corwin. All rights reserved. Reprinted from *What Really Works in Elementary Education* by Wendy W. Murawski and Kathy Lynn Scott. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, [www.corwin.com](http://www.corwin.com) The Empty Number Line The *Empty Number Line* is a tool that supports children's invented strategies. Using an empty number line, children can illustrate and explain their way of thinking about solving addition or subtraction problems (Klein, Beishuizen, & Treffers, 1998). It is empty because it is a simple line without numbers and evenly spaced hash marks (which often confound children). In the Netherlands, where the research was conducted, children begin with a length of 100 beads on a string, which alternate 15 color every 10 beads (e.g., 10 white beads alternating with 10 green beads). When using the bead string, children familiarize themselves with numbers as tens and ones and also become familiar with the positions of numbers from 1 to 100. Children then transfer these ideas to the empty number line by placing a number on the line and then jumping up the number line by ones, tens, or eventually multiples of tens. Children must make decisions on how to solve the addition or subtraction problems and actively show these decisions by drawing them on the number line. The transparent character of the moves shown on the number line helps children develop their own strategies and communicate their solutions and, in doing so, also develop a deep understanding of the concepts of addition and subtraction. Image 7 References 16 ![Image 8](media/image13.jpeg) Ball, D. L. (1993). With an eye on the mathematical horizon: Dilemmas of teaching elementary school mathematics. Elementary School Journal, 93, 373--397. Ball, D. L., & Bass, H. (2003). Toward a practice-based theory of mathematical knowledge for teaching. In B. Davis & E. Simmt (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2002 annual meetings of the Canadian Mathematics Education Study Group (pp. 3--14). Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: Canadian Mathematics Education Study Group. Ball, D. L., Hill, H. C., & Bass, H. (2005). Knowing mathematics for teaching: Who knows mathematics well enough to teach third grade, and how can we decide? American Educator, 29(1), 14--17, 20--22, 43--46. Burns, M. (2000). About teaching mathematics. Sausalito, CA: Math Solutions. Carpenter, T. P., Franke, M. L., Jacobs, V. R., Fennema, E., & Empson, S. B. (1998). A longitudinal study of invention and understanding in children's multidigit addition and subtraction. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 29, 3--20. Fosnot, C. T. (1996). Constructivism: A psychological theory of learning. In C. T. Fosnot (Ed.), Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice (pp. 8--33). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Grouws, D. A., & Cebulla, K. J. (2000). Improving student achievement in mathematics. Geneva, Switzerland: International Academy of Education. Henningsen, M. (2000). Triumph through adversity: Supporting high-level thinking. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 6, 244--248. Henningsen, M., & Stein, M. K. (1997). Supporting students' high-level thinking, reasoning, and communication in mathematics. In J. Sowder & B. Schappelle (Eds.), Lessons learned from research (pp. 27--35). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Hertzog, H., & O'Rode, N. (2011). Improving the quality of elementary mathematics student teaching: Using field support materials to develop reflective practice in student teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly, 38(3), 89--111. Hiebert, J. (2003). What research says about the NCTM standards. In J. Kilpatrick, W. G. Martin, & D. Schifter (Eds.), A research companion to principles and standards for school mathematics (pp. 5--23). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Hill, H., Rowan, B., & Ball, D. (2005). Effects of teachers' mathematical knowledge for teaching on student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 42(2), 371--406. Klein, A. S., Beishuizen, M., & Treffers, A. (1998). The empty number line in Dutch second grades: Realistic versus gradual program design. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 29, 443--464. Larson, M. R., & Leinwand, S. (2013). Prepare for more realistic test results. Mathematics Teacher, 106(9), 656--659. National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). United States mathematics and science achievement in 2011 \[Data file\]. Retrieved from 17 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1989). Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. Pesek, D. D., & Kirshner, D. (2000). Interference of instrumental instruction in subsequent relational learning. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 31, 524--540. Schmidt, W. H., McKnight, C. C., & Raizen, S. A. (1996). A splintered vision: An investigation of U.S. science and mathematics education. Boston, MA: Kluwer. Smith, M. S., & Stein, M. K. (1998). Selecting and creating mathematical tasks: From research to practice. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 3, 344--350. Stein, M. K., Smith, M. S., Henningsen, M., & Silver, E. A. (2000). Implementing standards-based mathematics instruction: A casebook for professional development. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Stigler, J., & Heibert, J. (1999). The teaching gap: Best ideas from the world's teachers for improving education in the classroom. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Willingham, D. (2009). Why don't students like school? A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for the classroom. San Francisco, CA: Wiley & Sons. Recommended Readings Image 9 ^\*^ Carpenter, T. P., Franke, M., & Levi, L. (2003). *Thinking mathematically: Integrating arithmetic and algebra in elementary school.* Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. ^\*^ Myren, C. (2013). *Posing open-ended questions in the primary math classroom.* Bellingham, WA: Math Perspectives. ^\*^ National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2002). *Putting research into practice in the elementary grades: Readings from the journals of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.* Reston, VA: Author. ^\*^ Sowder, J., & Schappelle, B. (2002). *Lessons learned from research.* Reston, VA: NCTM. ^\*^ Van de Walle, J. A., Karp, K., & Bay-Williams, J. M. (2010). *Elementary and middle school mathematics: Teaching developmentally* (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Go Even Further with this Topic on the World Wide Web ![Image 10](media/image15.jpeg) - [www.illuminations.nctm.org](http://www.illuminations.nctm.org) - [www.nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/vlibrary.html](http://www.nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/vlibrary.html) - [www.corestandards.org](http://www.corestandards.org) - [www.robertkaplinsky.com/lessons](http://www.robertkaplinsky.com/lessons) - [www.myboe.org/](http://www.myboe.org/) - [ime.math.arizona.edu/progressions/](http://ime.math.arizona.edu/progressions/) - [www.scoe.org/pub/htdocs/ccss-mathematics.html](http://www.scoe.org/pub/htdocs/ccss-mathematics.html) - [www.engageny.org/](http://www.engageny.org/) - [www.bowlandmaths.org.uk/index.html](http://www.bowlandmaths.org.uk/index.html) - [www.illustrativemathematics.org](http://www.illustrativemathematics.org) 18 The Apps We Love Image 11 - Math Concentration - Pick-a-Path - Deep Sea Duel - Grouping and Grazing - Isometric Drawing Tool []{#s9781483390161i241.anchor} 19 2 Rewarding Reading Practices Renee Ziolkowska *California State University, Northridge* What Really Works In Reading In The Elementary Classroom Why Do We Read? What comes to mind when you hear the word *reading?* Is it an image of relaxing with a good book, or is it something that produces anxiety? For many of us, as teachers, we enjoy reading and are probably good at it. That is one reason some of us became teachers---we were successful in reading and in school. However, many students struggle with reading and do not find it enjoyable, which is difficult for some of us to understand. In this chapter, you will find suggestions on how to help students learn to read and enjoy it, too! Why do we read? Well, there are many reasons, such as enjoyment, entertainment, to gain information, to be able to do certain things, and so on. Reading is an important skill for success in our society. When children cannot read, it limits what they can do and the opportunities they have. 20 We know that teaching reading is complex. There are various perspectives on how best to teach children to read. Some of these perspectives are in conflict with each other (e.g., holistic vs. skill-based reading approaches), which makes it more challenging for teachers to make the best decisions related to reading in their classrooms. In addition, our classrooms are now more diverse and more students with special needs are identified, thus making the teaching of reading even more challenging. In the following pages, suggestions are listed for the teaching of reading to elementary school children---what really works and what does not. What is Reading? What is reading? Is it simply decoding the words on a page or is there more to it? A standard dictionary definition of reading (or to read) might sound something like this: "To examine and grasp the meaning of written or printed characters, words, or sentences." This definition is not sufficient because without understanding what we read, there is little or no purpose for reading. In the next several pages, essential components of an effective reading program will be discussed. In the past, the focus of reading was on the mechanics. We now know that the main goal is for students to construct meaning as they interact with text (Pearson, Roehler, Dole, & Duffy, 1990). Reading should always be an active process! Students need instruction as well as opportunities to practice what they have learned in the following areas: phonemic awareness, phonics, high-frequency words, vocabulary, comprehension, and fluency. It is important to remember that there needs to be balance in a literacy program: modeled reading/reading aloud, shared reading, guided reading, and independent reading as well as modeled writing, shared writing, guided writing, and independent writing. Students who do much reading tend to be very good readers. Students who read more books and are given a choice in what to read have a positive attitude toward reading (Cline & Kretke, 1980). Teachers also need to differentiate instruction. Students benefit from flexible grouping, especially those who struggle with reading. It is especially important to meet the needs of beginning readers. "Researchers agree that if instruction for struggling students is to be beneficial, that support needs to begin early, as soon as difficulties emerge. It is much harder to help children if problems are detected later... early intervention and quality instruction are the key to helping more learners be successful" (Ziolkowska, 2007, p. 76). Not all students are the same kinds of readers or have the same affinity or skill toward reading; differentiation encourages teachers to recognize this diversity and mix it up as needed. It is important to value the experience and knowledge that students bring to the classroom. Our schools tend to be more individualistic and 21 value students doing things independently. However, children who are Hispanic, African American, and American Indian come from families that value collectivism or are group oriented (Trumbull, Rothstein-Fisch, & Greenfield, 2000). Teachers need to be aware that there may be differences between what families value and what schools value. It is common to sometimes feel overwhelmed when you cannot reach all the students in your diverse classrooms. Don't give up! Instead, search for ways that will support the learning needs of all your students. Teachers can have a profound impact on the literacy lives of their students. Remember, you can make a difference! One last thing---teacher quality is the most important factor in determining how well students learn (Vandevoort, Amrein-Beardsley, & Berliner, 2004). Teachers need to understand what reading is and how best to teach children to read. They need to be aware that what worked in the teaching of reading years ago may not be best practice today. Effective teachers of reading need to stay current and familiar with research on the teaching of reading and make decisions that are best for their students... because reading is a skill students will use throughout their lives! Ineffective Strategies for Teaching Reading in the Elementary Classroom ![Image 5](media/image8.jpeg) - ✖ STOP using the words *reading* and *decoding* synonymously. They are not the same. Decoding is sounding out the letters/letter patterns in a word, whereas reading means that there is an understanding of the text. We need to get our students to do more than decode; they need to *read!* - ✖ **STOP using Round Robin (the practice of students taking turns reading one by one out loud) in class.** Most students will stop listening to their peers reading. Instead, they will try to figure out what section they will need to read and practice their part so that they do not embarrass themselves in front of their peers. By not paying attention to those who read before them, they miss out on a learning opportunity. 22 - ✖ **STOP asking questions that have only one possible correct answer.** Instead, ask questions that promote discussion. Don't simply ask *what* questions, integrate *why, how,* and *what if* questions. Also, encourage students to pose their own questions. Harvey and Goudvis (2007) explain that very young children have many questions; however, by the time they reach upper elementary grades, they hardly ask any questions. They state, "Schools do not foster questions. Schools demand answers---answers to teachers' questions \... " (p. 18). In addition, promote thinking at different levels. - ✖ **STOP doing timed reading/fluency tests.** These tests give children the wrong message---that students who read the fastest are the best readers. Of course, we know that is not always true. Sometimes when students read too quickly, they do not have enough time to process what they read, and therefore, they do not comprehend what they just read. Fluency means that students can decode words easily and accurately, chunk words into meaningful phrases, and use appropriate intonation and expression. - ✖ **STOP teaching a skill or strategy just once and assuming that the students understand.** Most often students need multiple exposures and practice before they fully understand a new concept. The key is to reteach and practice the skill or strategies in various ways \... so students don't get bored. Incorporate fun activities and games when reviewing. - ✖ **STOP using the one-size-fits-all model.** Students have different needs---some are reading at grade level, while others are reading above or below grade level. Doing only whole class reading will not meet their needs. Small group instruction, such as guided reading (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996), is much more effective. The purpose of reading groups is to meet the reading needs of all the students in the classroom. Guided reading is different than the traditional basal reading groups where students tend to stay in the same group throughout the year (and often beyond). Guided reading groups are flexible, and the student composition in these groups changes throughout the school year based on their needs. The benefit of guided reading is that students read text at their level or slightly above with the support of a teacher. Learn more about guided reading at the URL in the Plugged In box. - ✖ **STOP reading from only one text.** Instead, use multiple texts such as fiction, nonfiction, magazines, articles, and books of varying difficulty, as well as electronic texts. By doing this, you will meet the interests and needs of all your students. - ✖ **STOP over-assessing students.** When used appropriately, assessments can be beneficial (they can inform your teaching). However, too much time spent on assessment takes time away from instruction. Observations and reflections on what students do on a daily basis can be extremely informative. 23 - ✖ **STOP reteaching the same concepts in the same exact way.** If students did not learn it the first time, it is most likely they will not get it the second time if it's taught in the same exact way. It is crucial to reteach, but do so in a variety of ways. You may even want to ask students to explain their understanding to their peers. - ✖ **STOP using rote memorization/drilling of facts for everything---it's ineffective.** Students may recall the information for the test but will most likely not retain it. Instead, teach it in a way that relates to the students' lives or allows them to experience it in some way. They will learn it more deeply that way and remember it better. - ✖ **STOP asking students to look up and write definitions for a long list of vocabulary words.** This is an ineffective way to learn new words because students are simply copying words and not thinking what the words mean. - ✖ **STOP teaching vocabulary words for only the length of the unit and never returning to review these words.** Children need multiple exposures to words before they really own them (using the words in their speech and writing). - ✖ **STOP asking students to respond to readings with only book reports.** There are so many different and engaging ways to respond to readings. - ✖ **STOP making reading boring or a task.** Show your enthusiasm for books \... it will be contagious! - ✖ **STOP talking so much.** Many children are passive and bored in schools. One of the reasons is that teachers do most of the talking and doing. Let's rethink how learning occurs in the classroom. Wong and Wong (2001) state: The reason teachers are so tired at the end of the school day is that they have been working. If I worked as hard as many teachers do, I'd be tired, too. But have you ever noticed what happens at 3 o'clock when the students leave? "Yea, yea, yea!" Why are they so full of energy? Because they have been sitting in school all day doing nothing while the teacher is doing all the work. The person who does the work is the only one doing any learning! (p. 205) Image 12 **Plugged In** [www.readwritethink.org/](http://www.readwritethink.org/) [rmsra.wikispaces.com/file/view/Student+reading+survey.pdf](http://rmsra.wikispaces.com/file/view/Student+reading+survey.pdf) [www.professorgarfield.org/](http://www.professorgarfield.org/) Ideas and Strategies to Create Effective Reading Instruction for Elementary Students ![Image 6](media/image9.jpeg) 24 - ✓ **CREATE a classroom community.** Create a classroom climate/environment where all students feel welcomed, respected, and part of a community of learners. Get to know your students by asking them what they are good at and what is important to them. You may want to ask students (or their parents) to write you a letter introducing themselves (or their child) at the beginning of the school year. - ✓ **ADMINISTER a reading survey.** Find out your students' attitude toward reading by creating or using a premade reading interest/attitude survey or questionnaire, such as the Elementary Reading Attitude Survey (McKenna & Kear, 1990). You may want to visit the websites identified in the Plugged In box. - ✓ **OBSERVE your students.** Become good at *kid watching* (Goodman, 1978). Learn to closely observe them in the classroom, and take anecdotal notes on their strengths and needs. - ✓ **TAKE TIME to build motivation.** Share with students your passion for reading. This can be very motivating for some students. Also, provide opportunities for students to read highly engaging, motivating material. You may also want to display books all over the classroom. Interesting books may inspire students to want to read more. Bring in a new book from time to time and read a little from it (a few pages or a chapter). Then leave it on the chalkboard ledge \... you'll be surprised how many students will be curious and pick it up to read. - ✓ **BUILD phonemic awareness.** When working with younger students, devote time to phonemic awareness (the ability to manipulate the sounds in words). This can be done in fun and engaging ways: Use a puppet and ask students to blend the sounds (e.g., /sh/ /i/ /p/), or segment sounds in a word (e.g., *sun* ). Play and sing songs, such as *Down by the Bay, Willoughby Wallaby Woo,* or *Apples and Bananas,* and ask students to make up rhyming words or manipulate sounds. Bring a yoga mat and explain to the students that they are going to stretch their body, then explain how they are going to stretch words and listen for all the sounds (e.g., s-w-i-m). Play a bean bag toss game where students toss a bean bag for each sound they hear in a word. Some other ideas you may want to try: read Dr. Seuss books, bring in lots of rhyming books, use nursery rhymes, share texts that contain alliteration, bring in alphabet books, use tongue twisters, share and create rhymes, clap syllables in someone's name, read or chant poems, and so on. Keep in mind that researchers have concluded that phonemic awareness is a powerful predictor of later reading achievement. So be sure to devote time to it! 25 - ✓ **START with a morning message.** Write a morning message each day to help beginning readers learn concepts about print (basic understandings about the way print works, such as: direction of print, what is a letter/word). If you can, make it funny or interesting or have it incorporate your students' names and interests. A morning message can be written by the teacher or together by the teacher and students. Some teachers make purposeful mistakes on the morning message and when students come into the classroom they are asked to be detectives and search for the mistakes \... they love this! - ✓ **USE the Language Experience Approach (LEA).** Children have many wonderful stories in their head, but the minute you ask them to write it down, some children don't know what to write. LEA is beneficial to all students, but especially English language learners and struggling writers, by allowing children to dictate their stories or experiences while someone else writes their words down. Later, the story is read by the students and the teacher. This promotes reading, writing, and vocabulary development. LEA can be done one-on-one with a student, in small groups, and as a whole class. The story can be written on chart paper, on the board, on PowerPoint, on an interactive whiteboard, a laptop, or on other electronic formats. Don't forget to use technology if you are too busy to have students dictate to you! Students can use Dragon Dictate or other speech to text software, videotape themselves on a smart phone or iPad, or import photos and music to enhance their writing. - ✓ **TEACH phonics.** Devote time to teaching phonics (the relationship between letters and sounds). You can use flip books, cube words, alphabet books, tongue twisters, Elkonin boxes, and Making Words (Cunningham & Cunningham, 1992). With younger students, you can do a beginning of the year activity by exploring student names. For example, if you have students with the names *Sophia* and *Sam,* ask students how the two names are similar and different. 26 - ✓ **TEACH, use, and review high-frequency words (on the Word Wall).** Teach high-frequency words (words that appear often in print) in the lower grades because some of these words are difficult to decode (e.g., *the, of, have* ) and children encounter them often in text. Make a high-frequency word wall (words displayed on a wall or the board) and refer to these words often. Tips for doing a word wall: (a) be selective about what words go up on the word wall, (b) add words gradually, (c) make the words accessible by placing them where everyone can see them easily, (d) practice the words in different ways (e.g., chanting and writing them), (e) review the words frequently (e.g., playing games), and (f) make sure that word wall words are spelled correctly in student writing. Want to make it really fun? Use Murawski's (2010) Magic Tablecloth to have a dynamic word wall. Tape a plastic tablecloth to a wall or window and spray it with adhesive spray. Then students can put their words up on paper, index cards, paper plates, or any other light material without sticky notes or other adhesive. Goes up easily and can be quickly changed around, sorted, and used for activities. - ✓ **BUILD your students' vocabulary/word knowledge.** Vocabulary knowledge is the most important predictor of reading comprehension. Wide reading is the most common way children learn vocabulary. Students who have difficulty with reading may not learn words as easily on their own and will need direct instruction. Teach vocabulary words in relationship to other words and ideas in the text. In addition, using a word map (see page 32) and other graphic organizers as well as word sorts will allow students to gain a better understanding of words. Discussions should be a component of all vocabulary instruction. Display the words in the classroom for at least the length of the instruction unit, if not longer (adding an image next to the word is very helpful). Children need many exposures to words so they can learn them deeply enough to comprehend reading and to use them in speaking and writing. Word activities and games (e.g., Bingo, Jeopardy, Hedbanz, Twister, Taboo, Memory, Pictionary, Vocabulary Parade, and Charades) are good ways to provide exposure to new words \... plus, they are fun! - ✓ **MONITOR comprehension.** The goal of reading is to understand what is read. Simply sounding out words on a page without understanding them is not *reading,* it's *decoding.* Comprehension is a complex process where the reader constructs meaning by interacting with the text. Reading comprehension is a critical component to being successful in school and the workplace. Work on comprehension strategies with the students, and be sure to explain what each strategy is and why it's important. Also, model how to use the strategy in context, and finally, provide opportunities for guided practice (with a partner or in small group) and independent practice. - ✓ **DON'T FORGET to teach and use graphic organizers.** Use graphic organizers (e.g., Venn diagram, story map, fact and opinion, KWL, flow chart, and other webbing charts and maps) to help students organize material more clearly. Graphic organizers can be used before reading, during, and/or after reading a text. One of the most effective ways to prepare students to focus on what they are about to read is to use an Anticipation Guide---Agree/Disagree Chart (see the end of this chapter for an example). Remember, organizers and maps should not be used as worksheets; their purpose is to help students see connections. Make sure to model all organizers before asking students to do them on their own, and then later encourage them to create their own. Keep in mind that organizers are also helpful when students want to organize their thoughts before writing. 27 - ✓ **PROMOTE fluency.** Model what fluent reading sounds like. For example, try chunking words into meaningful parts, pausing in appropriate places, reading with intonation and expression, and at an appropriate pace. It's important to remember that you first want to read the book, discuss it, and do activities with it before practicing fluency. Students can become more fluent by participating in readers' theater. (In the beginning, you can provide the students with the script, later they can create their own scripts after reading a text.) To become more fluent, students can also reread with a partner, participate in choral reading, listen to an audio of the story and read along with it, read stories they wrote, read books of interest, and read independently. Rasinski (2004) suggests poetry, scripts, speeches, monologues, dialogues, jokes, and riddles. Now, doesn't this sound more fun (and consequently more engaging) for students than a timed fluency test? - ✓ **INTEGRATE writing to improve reading.** One way to respond to reading is through writing. This may include double or triple journal entries or making class books, shape books, quickwrites, journals/diaries, and so forth. By integrating writing, teachers are promoting reading. Connect with others so that you can be more creative and think outside the box. For example, organize a pen pal project (Ziolkowska, 2010). Your students will love writing and getting mail to read if there is an actual person on the other end responding to them. Authentic writing can be very motivating for students---they have a real audience and a real reason for writing (not just for the teacher for a grade). - ✓ **INCORPORATE different kinds of texts.** Read a variety of materials including fiction, nonfiction, realistic fiction, biography, fantasy, sports, Internet information, humor, joke books, comics, magazines, and poetry. Know your students' interests, and integrate them as often as you can. Infuse multicultural literature into the curriculum (by doing this, you demonstrate that you value your students' heritage). And be sure to include high-quality reading material. Research suggests that the kind of texts teachers select can make a difference. When teachers choose books that are on unfamiliar topics and have challenging words, they are more likely to promote vocabulary and language learning (Paratore, Cassano, & Schickedanz, 2011). Have high expectations for your students (without being overwhelming), and help them achieve this! 28 - ✓ **PROMOTE different kinds of reading.** Encourage independent/self-selected reading, partner reading, and buddy reading programs (with older students) as well as reading in small groups. Be sure to provide differentiated instruction. Working in small groups with students is very beneficial---you will get to know the students' reading abilities much better and provide the instruction they need at their level, there is more active student involvement, the teacher provides immediate feedback to students, and it allows the teacher to monitor and assess students on a regular basis and address those needs immediately. Many students are very social and learn better (gain a deeper understanding) when they work with others. You may also want to have literature circles or hold literature discussions. Invite guest/mystery readers into the classroom to read a book (and explain why or how reading is important in their daily lives). Remember children learn to read by reading. When students are engaged in independent reading, such as Drop Everything and Read (DEAR), stop what you're doing and read a book, too. Often children are encouraged to read, but don't see the adults in their lives reading. By stopping what you're doing to read a book, you demonstrate that reading is important! - ✓ **FACILITATE deeper discussions.** It is important to have deep discussions with students. I would encourage you to put the teacher manual away and have authentic discussions. Ask questions, especially those that do not have an answer. You will be surprised by the meaningful discussions you will have. Let students take the lead in these discussions. - ✓ **ASK for various responses to reading.** Children are creative! Provide them with multiple opportunities to respond to the books they read with accordion books, flip-flaps, murals, poof books, pop-up books, postcards, step books, travel guides, advertisements, conducting interviews, writing letters, giving speeches, writing/performing songs, cartoons/comic strips, and so on. Not sure what some of these are? Google them! - ✓ **TEACH content area reading.** Many students assume that all material is read in the same way. However, we may need to reread parts of a textbook several times because it tends to be dense with information and include specific academic vocabulary. Also, teachers sometimes assume that if students do well in reading fiction, they will also be equally successful with nonfiction texts. However, this may not always be true. The Common Core State Standards call for an increased reading of informational text. So, take the time to teach effective strategies to comprehend informational material. Here are just a few ideas you can start with to help your students with nonfiction texts: preview the text; ask students to generate questions before/during/after reading the text; use anticipation guides; have class discussions; create concepts maps/graphic organizers (such as a KWL); do Think, Pair, Share; build vocabulary; do word sorts, and so on. Remember, you can enhance the understanding of the textbook by using multiple texts on the subject, using short video clips, periodicals, the Internet, and other materials that help make the content more comprehensible and interesting to students. 29 - ✓ **TEACH critical literacy.** Teachers need to encourage students to be critical readers and consumers of information by analyzing texts and authors' perspectives. Critical literacy means that students need to approach a text and look at power, inequity, and injustice in the world. It is important that students challenge what they read (they do not have to agree with someone else's perspective). - ✓ **MONITOR struggling readers.** Some students begin to struggle in lower elementary grades, while others develop difficulties in upper elementary grades. Helping students who struggle requires effective classroom instruction and personalized intervention (Allington, 2012). You may want to implement some of these ideas to help your struggling readers: differentiate instruction (in small groups or one-on-one; a tutor or a reading specialist is helpful, if there's one available at your school), encourage parents to read to their child at home, and teach skills and strategies explicitly. - ✓ **SUPPORT English language learners.** Try using visuals (such as pictures, diagrams, charts, and graphic organizers) and realia. Encourage students to work with others, scaffold, preteach vocabulary, give enough response time, provide engaging and challenging material to read, assess the students and provide instruction where the child is, label objects in the classroom in English (and if possible, in the students' native language), have a bilingual dictionary, pair the students with other bilingual students who are more proficient, and make the necessary modifications so the students can be successful. The nice thing is that most of these strategies are supportive of all students, not just those who are not native English speakers. - ✓ **DO carefully select your assessments.** When assessing student reading, use both informal and formal assessments. Doing a running record, which is an informal assessment of a student's reading (Clay, 1997) and following this up with questions to check the student's comprehension can provide information about their reading ability and how to meet their individual needs. For more detailed assessments, use an Informal Reading Inventory, such as the Qualitative Reading Inventory (Leslie & Caldwell, 2011) or the Basic Reading Inventory (Johns, 2012). Remember to gather information about your students using ongoing assessments that inform your instruction. 30 - ✓ **INTEGRATE technology and reading.** Students can use the Internet to do research; digital software or apps to reinforce certain skills; computers to type reports or develop PowerPoint, Prezi, or PowToon presentations; programs like Kidblog to write blogs; interactive whiteboards; and digital cameras to create documentaries. Students are very interested in using technology in the classroom to learn and sometimes feel more comfortable using it than their teachers do. - ✓ **DON'T forget family involvement.** Encourage parents and caregivers to be your partners in promoting reading. Invite parents to help in the classroom (especially when you are doing guided reading with each group). Parents can help at centers, read books to students, and monitor student writing, or they can assist students with other work. Whether they themselves are readers or not, they can still help support the reading and learning of children. Oftentimes, they just need your guidance and suggestions. - ✓ **EXPLORE what good readers do.** Instead of having a premade poster on What Good Readers Do, discuss with the students what it means to be a good reader and create a poster together (adding more information as the year progresses). - ✓ **OBSERVE educators teaching reading.** Take time to observe other highly effective teachers of reading to get ideas, ask questions, and collaborate on projects that will support you in becoming a fabulous reading teacher that promotes a love of reading! Currently, there is an emphasis on preparing students to be college and career ready. It is not enough to simply have students participate in low-level tasks/skills/thinking. We need to engage our students in higher level thinking (that is the expectation of colleges and employers). Remem

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