Understanding Crime in Canadian Society - Week 8 (CRM 101) PDF

Understanding Crime in Canadian Society CRM 101 (Section #041) Schedule: Lecture: Friday 10:00am-12:00pm Lab: Thursday 11:00am-12:00pm Location: Lecture: ARC108 Lab: ENG LG11 Office hours: Thursday 12:00pm-1:00pm (JOR 807) In...

Understanding Crime in Canadian Society CRM 101 (Section #041) Schedule: Lecture: Friday 10:00am-12:00pm Lab: Thursday 11:00am-12:00pm Location: Lecture: ARC108 Lab: ENG LG11 Office hours: Thursday 12:00pm-1:00pm (JOR 807) Instructor: Dr. Salmaan Khan Course Website: my.torontomu.ca (D2L) Email: [email protected] Getting your semester organized What do I have to work on this week? What is coming up next week? When do I give myself a break?  Key groupings of theories of crime Foundation Branches Focus Classical Criminology -Utilitarian approaches Crime is a function of -Choice Theory (Chapt 5) choice (whether freely determined or in response to options) Positivist Criminology -Trait Theories (Chapt 6) Crime is a function of internal factors such as genetics, personality, intelligence or mental traits. Sociological Criminology -Social Structural Crime is understood Theories (Chapt 7) relative to social -Social Process Theories phenomena such as (Chapt 8) ecological forces, -Conflict Theory (Chapt socialization forces, the 9) economy/mode of production RECAP – Choice Theory Built on the foundations of Utilitarianism and Classical Theory Classical theory holds that human beings have the capacity for agency and choice + Free will vs. determinism Human activity is voluntary and the decision to do XYZ, or commit a crime, is the result of a carefully decided rational decision. As such we are seen as responsible for what we do (i.e. we make a choice to do XYZ) + “If you choose to do the crime, you choose to do the time” WEEK #8: Theories of Crime: Trait Theories Required reading: Chapter 6, “Trait Theories” Choice Theory vs. Trait Theories Similarities: Both focus on the individual (Level of Analysis) Both proceed with the assumption that there is a clear consensus-based distinction between ‘normal’ and ‘deviant/criminal’ behaviour. i.e. They do not necessarily ask the WHAT question but are concerned with the WHY question Differences: Choice Theory holds that we are free willing, rational, agents Trait Theories hold that all human activity is determined by factors outside of our decision-making ability (there is no ‘choice’ or free will per se) Our actions – such as committing a crime – are a consequence of either biological & psychological (individual) factors, or a combination of both.  Historical Context – Positivism and the rise of Science Historical Context: 19th century rapid industrialization and the development of capitalism Technological innovation and mass production techniques Increasing class divide/conflict Expanding European colonialism  ‘Positivist Criminology’ and Trait Theories of Crime Its practices are grounded in the scientific turn of the 19th century Positivism sought to apply the methodologies of the natural sciences to the study of society (the scientific method) + The intention was to develop a more accurate understanding of how society works. + In doing so a rational solution can be provided to solving/overcoming social problems Positivism as an approach in the study of society holds three main premises: 1.) Social scientists are neutral observers of the world 2.) Human activity can be measured through the use of objective tests 3.) As with the natural world, the ‘social world’ is seen to obey general laws of operation True or False 1+1 = 2 Now is day The sky is blue  Labelling Theory vs. Positivism Subjective vs. Objective Something is subjective if it is dependent on the mind/person/subject Something if objective if it can Subjective vs. Objective be confirmed independently of the mind Something is subjective if it is dependent on the mind/person/subject Something if objective if it can be confirmed independently of the Flat Earth vs Spherical Earth? “No one has ever devised a method for detaching the scholar from the circumstances of life, from the fact of his involvement (conscious or unconscious) with a class, a set of beliefs, a social position, or from the mere activity of being a member of a society. These continue to bear on what he does professionally…” -Edward Wadie Said, (1935-2003) THE SOCIAL ORGANISM Positivist social scientists tend to view society as an organism that is made up of different components which work together to ensure the proper functioning of the system as a whole. Issues in society occur when any one of these components is behaving in a dysfunctional way. The solution = devising strategies to remedy or correct the dysfunction + Crime prevention becomes focused on remedying the situation (like a doctor performing surgery or administering an anti-biotic) Trait Theories of Crime (biological and psychological) Trait theories are grounded in the methodological approach of positivism Trait theories look at a combination of biological and psychological factors that might explain criminality Q: A question that trait theory asks is: Why does one person act aggressively when cut off in traffic while the other person doesn’t? Q: Why does it seem like some people can control their urges while others cannot? Q: Why is there a relatively small group of chronic offenders who are responsible for most of the crime in society? BIOLOGICAL TRAIT THEORY Classical Approaches: The ‘Atavistic Criminal’ Criminals are born and not made Criminals are determined from birth due to various biological factors Biological trait theory as an approach to criminology was first popularized by 19th century physician Cesare Lombroso For Lombroso, the atavistic criminal was predisposed to criminal activity based on evolutionary and genetic factors Lombroso held that the atavistic criminal was, developmentally speaking, closer to apes than the modern human These atavistic criminals could be identified based on certain physical characteristics such as the size and shape of the head, or the hand, protruding teeth, or large ears.  Biological Trait Theory Contemporary Approaches: Work of early bio-criminologists was deemed methodologically unsound and the reality of sociological factors could not be ignored Emphasis was increasingly placed on “sociobiological” factors Human behaviour is motivated by both inborn biological conditions (desires, urges, limitations) which are triggered or emphasized by social conditions The sociological + biological are interdependent as opposed to seeing them as conflicting EX: Aggressive behaviour is the consequence of biological predisposition and social conditioning Biosocial theory Two key principles of biosociology 1.) Not all humans are born with an equal potential to learn and achieve (our capacities are determined by variables in our genetic makeup) i.e. we are not all born equal The Gene controls all human destiny This is contrary to sociological theorists/criminologists who believe in equipotentiality + Def: having the same or uniform potential 2.) Our instincts are inherited not learned, and these ‘instinctual drives’ impact our learning and social capacity Biological Trait Theory Four Contemporary Biosocial Theories of Crime: 1.) Biochemical Conditions 2.) Neurophysiological Conditions 3.) Genetic Conditions 4.) Evolutionary Conditions #1 Biochemical Conditions and Crime This branch of biological trait theories believes that biochemical conditions - both those that are genetically inherited and those acquired through diet and environment – control and influence deviant and antisocial behaviour Examples: 1.) Nutritional Deficiencies + Ex: Vitamin deficiency leads to lower intelligence and behavioral problems 2.) Hypoglycemia + Ex: Lower sugar levels lead to abnormal brain functioning 3.) Hormonal Influences + Ex: Androgens such as Testosterone contribute to increased aggression in males and explains. Gender differences in crime rates Biochemical Conditions and Crime (cont’d) 4.) Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) + Ex: The female menstrual cycle triggers excessive amounts of female sex hormones which are thought to create aggressive and antisocial behaviour 5.) Allergies + Ex: Allergies impair proper brain functioning One study links corn (and corn related allergens) to cross-national homicide rates 6.) Environmental Contaminants + Ex: Higher concentrations of chemicals such as lead influence behaviour and are linked to emotional and behaviour disorders One study found a correlation between higher concentrations of lead in the environment and homicide rates What do you think? Is crime, especially violent crime, a function of diet, vitamin intake, hormonal levels or food allergies? Class break (10 minutes) #2 Neurophysiological Conditions Neurophysiology = the study of brain activity This approach looks at neurological and physical abnormalities acquired during the fetal or perinatal stage. These abnormalities/conditions are believed to control human behaviour + Ex: can lead to more aggression and lack of impulse control One key concept is inherited traits as a result of environmental strain on the developing brain Examples: + 1.) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome + 2.) Minimal Brain Dysfunction + 3.) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Other Brain Dysfunctions Brain lesions and tumours + Ex: Charles Whitman who killed his wife and mother, then barricaded himself in a university tower and killed 14 people with a high- powered rifle. An autopsy revealed he had suffered from a malignant bran tumour. He had sought psychiatric treatment because he experienced urges to kill. Head injuries + Particularly in frontal and prefrontal cortex (executive functioning) + Damage to temporal lobe  increased chances of auditory hallucinations (hearing voices, noises, etc.) #3 Genetic Conditions and Crime Some early trait theorists believed that criminality was passed down. They conducted research on ‘deviant families’ Question: Is there a hereditary influence on antisocial tendencies? + Ex. Some animals such as pit bulls or fighting bulls/cocks are selectively bred to emphasize aggressive traits. Traits associated with criminality in this approach: aggression, anti-social behaviour, impulsivity, psychopathy, schizophrenia A Bio-Trait Theory Approach to Crime Prevention? Eugenics: + Defined as the process of improving, either physically or mentally, the racial qualities of future generations + The eradication of ‘negative defects’ such as criminality, sexual perversion, or mental illness etc. + Procedures included restriction on marriage laws, segregation of the mentally ill, and sterilization to prevent procreation *The case of Leilani Marietta Muir from Alberta who was sterilized without her knowledge in 1959. Medical professionals had diagnosed her as a defective ‘intelligent-moron’ with an IQ of 64. *In Alberta, the Alberta Sexual Sterilization Act resulted in the creation of the Eugenics Board which had the power to authorize the sexual sterilization of individuals between 1929-1972. What do you think about the use of genetic screening? #4 Evolutionary Conditions and Crime Certain human traits such as jealousy are believed to play a role in contributing to crime + Jealousy, from an evolutionary standpoint is believed to have developed as a way of keeping families intact. + Aggression is believed to be an evolutionary trait, observed in chimpanzees, and linked to males benefiting from being ‘pro-risk’ while women benefit from being ‘risk averse’. Ex: The descendants of early aggressive males are believed to account for the disproportionate amount of male violence in society, and subsequently, criminality. Critiques of the Biological Branch of Trait Theory 1. Biological trait theory tends to focus on only specific types of crimes (violent or ‘street crimes’) + Reminder: It fails to ask the ‘what’ question + Lack of focus on white-collar or corporate crimes 2. There has been a lack of adequate empirical testing to validate the claims made by biological or biosocial trait theories. + The use of non-representative samples (i.e. studying inmates or individuals already within the criminal justice system) 3. Biological trait theory is inconclusively able to determine whether one’s biological makeup predetermines their behaviour or whether environmental factors trigger certain biological developments or responses  A branch of trait theory that focuses exclusively on the mental aspects of crime Branch #2: Psychological + The association of factors such as intelligence, personality, learning, and Trait Theories mental illness on criminal behaviour Examples of early studies included finding correlations, among convicts, between crime and ‘defective intelligence’. Another study agued that people learn from one another through a process of ‘imitation’ + Ex: there are higher crime rates among certain groups of people because they tend to imitate behaviour Three branches of psychological trait theories: 1.) Psychodynamic Perspective 2.) Behavioral Theories 3.) Cognitive Theory #1 Psychodynamic Perspective Originated with the work of Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939) Human consciousness is divided into three levels: + ID: unconscious biological drives for sex, food, and other necessities Two basic instincts include: Eros (libido) and the death instinct (Thanatos) + EGO: This preconscious level developed early in life It helps us regulate the demands of the ID relative to what is socially acceptable Shaped largely by early childhood and parental influences + SUPEREGO: Develops as a result of incorporating in our personality the moral standards and values of our community and society at large. Psychodynamic Perspective (cont’d) Crime is explained relative to underdevelopment or disruptions in early childhood. Generally, criminals are ID dominated people. + Ex. Drug abuse explained relative to lack of oral gratification in the first year of life + Ex. Forms of psychosis (i.e. Schizophrenia) explained as individuals having a loss of control of regulating stages (EGO/SUPEREGO) and so dominated by ID.  Behaviour Theory maintains that human actions are developed through #2 Behavioural Theories learning experiences. Rather than focus on biological predispositions, behaviour theorists are concerned with how individual behaviour and actions are developed through a variety of experiences. + i.e. people learn to act aggressively when, as children, they model their behaviour after the violent acts of adults + Another study conducted by David Phillips found homicide rates significantly increased after a heavyweight championship fight (modelling what is deemed as acceptable behaviour)  #3 Cognitive Theory Focuses on how people perceive the world and the mental processes required to understand the world. + Ex. Cognitive theorists may hold that human beings go through stages of moral development from infancy to adulthood Criminals are then individuals who have not progressed past a limited stage of development and who are unable to appreciate universal values/principles Subsequently criminals will only be regulated through obedience to power and avoidance of punishment + Ex. Antisocial or aggressive behaviour may be a result of inadequate decision-making processes that have resulted from negative experiences in early childhood i.e. hostile children or adults have learned from an early age to interpret the actions of others, and the world around them, in aggressive and hostile ways What are some limitations with psychological trait theories? Ex: Key Court Case study: “women and insanity in Canadian society” Many women in Canadian society were deemed ‘insane’ and institutionalized (usually for life) and subjected to invasive treatments such as insulin induced comas, lobotomies, and electroshock therapy. Many of these women came from lower income and ethnic minority communities and few had actually committed violent offences Many were diagnosed with mood disorders stemming from crimes such as infanticide (due to negligence), vagrancy, attempted suicide, and public nudity. One underlying issue here is shared with other branches of trait theory: There is an assumed consensus concerning what constitutes a deviation of a social norm. Social and policy implications of trait theories Shift from deterrence strategies of crime prevention to rehabilitation and correction, or ‘cure’ approaches Addressing the issue of people with mental illness being incarcerated for acts that were beyond their conscious control. Helping curb the cycle of reoffending by ‘criminals’ who may be suffering from significant mental health issues. + solving the problem of the ‘chronic offender’ Certain psychological trait theory approaches may emphasize parenting programs to help prevent developed delinquency (early intervention approaches) Next Class LAB: Study Skills Workshop Location: ENG LG11