Middle East Politics: Foreign Interventions PDF

Middle East Politics Week 11: Foreign Interventions Foreign Intervention the interference by one state or external entity in the internal affairs of another state by: ○ military action ○ economic sanctions ○ diplomatic pressure ○ covert operations ○ humanitarian aid Inte...

Middle East Politics Week 11: Foreign Interventions Foreign Intervention the interference by one state or external entity in the internal affairs of another state by: ○ military action ○ economic sanctions ○ diplomatic pressure ○ covert operations ○ humanitarian aid Intervention (1): Security and Strategic Interest To protect national security or strategic interests: prevent (perceived) threats from rival states, extremist groups, or other destabilizing forces. ○ Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): The United States intervened by imposing a blockade around Cuba to prevent the Soviet Union from installing nuclear missiles there, which the U.S. viewed as a direct threat. ○ Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988): Multiple states, including the U.S. and regional powers, interfered in the conflict by providing arms and support to Iraq to counter the perceived threat of Iran’s revolutionary government. Intervention (2): Economic interests and Resources To ensure (undisrupted) access to resources or trade routes by economic agreements, military presence, or supporting favorable governments. ○ British Colonization of India (1757-1947): Britain established control over India to exploit its resources, especially cotton, tea, and spices, and to secure strategic trade routes. ○ U.S. Invasion of Iraq (2003): While publicly justified by security concerns, many have argued that securing access to Iraq’s oil reserves was also a significant factor in the invasion. Intervention (3): Ideological and Political Influence To spread their political ideology or to prevent the spread of a rival ideology (was particularly common during the Cold War) ○ Vietnam War (1955-1975): The United States intervened in Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, fearing a domino effect. ○ Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979): The Soviet Union intervened to support the communist Afghan government against insurgent groups, fearing the loss of communist influence in the region. Intervention (4): Humanitarian Reasons Justified on humanitarian grounds, such as preventing genocide, mass atrocities, or severe human rights abuses (with big question marks, though) ○ NATO Intervention in Kosovo (1999): NATO intervened militarily to stop ethnic cleansing of Albanians by Serbian forces, citing humanitarian reasons. ○ NATO Intervention in Libya (2011): NATO forces intervened to prevent civilian casualties during the Libyan Civil War, claiming it was necessary to prevent a massacre by Muammar Gaddafi’s forces. Intervention (5): Ally Support and Proxies To support allied governments or factions within a state, either to maintain influence or prevent a rival power from gaining a foothold (militarily and/or economically) ○ U.S. Support for South Korea (1950-1953): During the Korean War, the U.S. intervened to support South Korea against the communist North, seeking to prevent the spread of communism on the Korean Peninsula. ○ Iran’s Support for Hezbollah in Lebanon: Iran has provided financial and military support to Hezbollah, a Shiite militia and political group, to increase its influence in Lebanon and counterbalance Israeli and Western influence. Intervention (6): Territory & Border Disputes To expand their territory, resolve border disputes, or assert control over contested regions ○ Annexation of Crimea by Russia (2014): Russia intervened in Ukraine to annex Crimea, claiming to protect ethnic Russians and citing strategic concerns regarding the Black Sea. ○ Iraq’s Invasion of Kuwait (1990): Saddam Hussein’s Iraq invaded Kuwait, claiming historical ties and disputes over oil fields, as well as accusing Kuwait of overproducing oil, which allegedly harmed Iraq’s economy. Intervention (7): Domestic Distraction To distract citizens from domestic issues or to gain political support by appealing to nationalism (aka diversionary wars) ○ Argentina’s Invasion of the Falkland Islands (1982): Argentina’s military junta invaded the British-controlled Falklands to distract from domestic unrest, which briefly rallied national support but ultimately led to their defeat and political decline. ○ Turkey’s Incursions into Northern Syria (2016-Present): Turkey has conducted military operations in northern Syria against Kurdish groups, partly to divert attention from economic problems at home and to gain nationalist support. (Read: it is wrong to change the government in such times…) An overview of foreign involvement in MENA Period Involvement Colonization period - until Britain, France, and Italy, through their colonization 1950s policies Cold War - until 1990 The US - USSR rivalry Post-Cold War - until 2010 The US and allies Arab Spring - present Russia back in the game (1) Early Cold War Era (1945-1960s) United States: ○ Prevent the spread of Soviet influence in the Middle East; secure access to oil; ensure stability. ○ Strong alliances with Saudi Arabia and Iran; stable flow of oil and a regional counterbalance to the USSR. Toppled Mosaddegh and installed the Shah after nationalization efforts of oil (1953). ○ Key role in the establishment of Israel, recognizing it immediately. Longstanding strategic alliance with Israel, but also tensions with Arab states. ○ Support anti-communist alliance of Middle Eastern countries, the Baghdad Pact (1955), with the UK, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey. Russia (Soviet Union): ○ Expand its influence by supporting anti-imperialist and socialist movements in the Middle East. ○ Formed strong ties with Egypt and Syria, providing arms, economic aid, and support for socialist policies. Soviet support for Arab socialism positioned it as an ally against Western imperialism. ○ Condemned the invasion of Suez Canal in Egypt (1956) by Britain, France, and Israel, which strengthened its position in the region. (2) Cold War Gets Hot Era (1970s-1980s) United States: ○ In 1973, the Arab oil embargo and subsequent energy crisis led to increased American engagement. ○ Backed the Shah of Iran and provided support to Saudi Arabia and other Gulf monarchies (Kuwait, Qatar, UAE), key allies against Soviet expansion. (lost Iran in 1979) ○ Camp David Accords (1978) brokered the peace agreement between Egypt and Israel, leading to Egypt becoming a U.S. ally, provided billions in military aid. (Russia loses Egypt) ○ Afghan-Soviet War (1979–1989) was a major threat to Middle Eastern security, fearing Soviet influence over Gulf oil. The CIA supported Afghan mujahideen fighters. Russia (Soviet Union): ○ Became the primary arms supplier for Syria and Iraq, with both countries adopting socialist-style policies aligned with Soviet ideology. ○ Backed Palestinian groups, providing them with military training, funding, and diplomatic support, which bolstered its position among Arab states. ○ Was cautiously optimistic about the anti-American sentiments of the Iranian Revolution but ultimately faced tensions with Iran due to the latter’s Shiite theocratic ideology and its opposition to Soviet atheism. (3) Post-Cold War Era (1990s-2000s) United States: ○ Led a coalition to liberate Kuwait in 1991, marking a significant military presence in the Gulf. ○ Adopted a “dual containment” policy, imposing sanctions on Iraq (post-Gulf War) and Iran (due to nuclear ambitions and support for Hezbollah and other groups), aiming to limit both nations’ regional influence. ○ Oslo Accords (1993) facilitated the peace process between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), though the efforts would later stall. ○ Ties with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states strengthened, providing arms and defense to protect these oil-rich allies. ○ The 9/11 attacks shifted the Middle East policy focus to combating terrorism, resulting in the invasion of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003). The Iraq War aimed to remove Saddam Hussein and establish a pro-US democracy, but the invasion destabilized Iraq and created new challenges, including the rise of ISIS. Russia: ○ Russian influence in the Middle East weakened significantly. The new Russian state faced internal crises and was preoccupied with post-Soviet restructuring. Russia maintained some diplomatic relationships, particularly with Syria and Iran, but its involvement in the Middle East in this period was very limited. (4) Arab Spring to Present: Russia is Back United States: ○ Initially supported democratic movements, though inconsistently: for change in Libya but hesitant in Syria. ○ The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) in 2015 aimed to limit Iran’s nuclear capabilities in exchange for lifting sanctions, which was abandoned in 2018 by the Trump administration, leading to renewed tensions. ○ Continued to provide military aid to Gulf allies and Israel, maintaining a large military presence to counter Iranian influence. Trying to normalize relations b/w Israel and Gulf states. But more focused on Asia-Pacific. Russia: ○ Reasserted its influence with military intervention in the Syrian Civil War in 2015 to support Assad, positioning itself as a key power broker, which marked a significant reentry into Middle Eastern geopolitics. ○ Expanded its influence through arms deals and economic partnerships with countries like Egypt, Iran, and Turkey, capitalizing on regional frustration with Western policies. ○ Developed closer ties with Iran, cooperating on military actions in Syria and jointly opposing US influence in the region. Russia and Iran coordinate strategically. ○ Leveraged its energy exports, particularly in natural gas, to deepen ties with Middle Eastern energy producers and OPEC, which has strengthened its influence on global oil markets. ○ Pursued alliances in Libya and Sudan, expanding its influence in MENA. An alternative superpower to the US.