Week 10 Part I: Middle East Politics - Ethnic Minorities PDF

Middle East Politics Week 10: Ethnic Minorities Ethnic minorities: Definition (1) Generally defined as social groups that differ from the majority population in terms of race, language, culture, religion, or national origin. They often possess distinct cultural identities that set them...

Middle East Politics Week 10: Ethnic Minorities Ethnic minorities: Definition (1) Generally defined as social groups that differ from the majority population in terms of race, language, culture, religion, or national origin. They often possess distinct cultural identities that set them apart from the dominant ethnic group. Like: ○ Kurds in Iraq, Turkey, Syria, and Iran ○ Berbers (Amazighs) in Morocco and Algeria ○ African Americans and Native Americans in the United States Ethnic minorities: Definition (2) How ethnicity should be defined is an issue in itself. Recall the primordialist vs. constructivist distinction in the definition of nations. Similar here. But usually, ethnic minorities are different in: ○ Their numbers: a smaller portion of the population ○ Their cultures: unique cultural practices, languages, traditions ○ Their identities: self-awareness of a distinct identity ○ Their treatment: usually suffering from marginalization Ethnic minorities: Definition (3) Do we define them socially or politically? Some groups exist socially, but governments deny to acknowledge them politically. ○ Turkey officially denies the recognition of the Kurdish minority as a distinct ethnic group. ○ Syria refused to give citizenship rights to Kurdish minorities. Ethnic minorities: Definition (4) Do small numbers mean disadvantage all the time? Some ethnic minorities wield significant political or economic power, making the concept of a ‘minority’ problematic. ○ In South Africa during apartheid, the white minority controlled the state, even though it was outnumbered by the black population. ○ Many examples in religious terms exist in MENA (Iraq, Syria, Bahrain) ○ Some minorities turn out to be wealthier than the majority, which might cause resentment against them (Jews in Europe, Greeks in Turkey). Ethnic minorities: Definition (5) Are the components easily separable? Ethnic identity often intersects with religion, race, or language. It is not always clear whether a group should be defined primarily by ethnicity or religion. ○ Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar face both ethnic discrimination and religious persecution, making it difficult to categorize them under a single minority label. ○ But the war in Syria is better labeled as a religious rather than ethnic conflict. Ethnic minorities: Definition (6) Do they remain the same? Ethnic identities change over time based on migration, intermarriage, and evolving political contexts. ○ In Sudan, the distinction between ethnic groups such as Arabs and non-Arabs shifted over time, especially in the context of the Darfur conflict. ○ Many African descendants started to identify themselves in the ‘Arab’ group, which wasn’t the case before. Ethnic minorities in MENA Kurds Yazidis ○ 30-35 million ○ 1 million ○ Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran ○ Iraq Amazigh (Berbers) Druze ○ 30-35 million ○ 1 million ○ Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia ○ Lebanon, Syria, Israel Assyrians Palestinian Arabs ○ 3 million ○ 1.6-2 million ○ Iraq, Syria, Turkey ○ Israel Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Kurds One of the largest ethnic groups in the world without a state ○ Live in Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran, Armenia They speak Kurdish ○ Kurmanji, Sorani, Zaza dialects Mostly Sunni Muslims Political establishments: ○ Semi-autonomous region in northern Iraq: Kurdistan Regional Government ○ Rojava project in northern Syria Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Amazighs (Berbers) Indigenous ethnic group native to North Africa ○ Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya ○ Greeks and Romans called them Berbers; they prefer Amazigh (free people) Est. 25-30 million across N. Africa Mostly Sunni Muslims ○ Some still practice Christianity or Judaism Speak Tamazight (and also Arabic) ○ Tachelhit, Kabyle, Tarifit Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Amazighs (Berbers) Challenges for the Amazigh: ○ Arabization policies implemented by post-colonial governments in Morocco and Algeria aimed to promote Arab identity at the expense of indigenous Amazigh culture and languages. Tamazight was only recently recognized as an official language in both countries. In Algeria, despite the large Kabyle population, Tamazight was not recognized as an official language until 2016. ○ Many Amazigh regions have been economically neglected, with lower access to infrastructure, education, and healthcare. In Libya, Amazighs were politically marginalized under Muammar Gaddafi, with bans on their language and cultural expression. ○ Amazigh movements advocate for cultural rights and political inclusion. In Morocco, the February 20 Movement after the Arab Spring also brought greater awareness of Amazigh issues, though full equality has yet to be achieved. Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Assyrians An ancient ethnic group native to Mesopotamia (2500 BC) Est. 3 million ○ Iraq, Syria, Turkey (+ US, Sweden, Ger, Aus) Speak Neo-Aramaic ○ Suret and Turoyo dialects Mostly Christian ○ Assyrian Church of the East; Chaldean Catholic Church; Syriac Orthodox Church Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Assyrians The persecution of the Assyrians ○ During World War I, Assyrians were subjected to massacres alongside Armenians and Greeks in what is known as the Sayfo (Assyrian Genocide). Hundreds of thousands were killed or forced to flee. ○ After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, Assyrians sought autonomy, but their demands were denied. In Iraq, Assyrians were victims of massacres, such as the Simele Massacre in 1933, when Iraqi forces attacked Assyrian villages, killing thousands. ○ During the Iraq War (2003) and the rise of ISIS (2014), Assyrian communities were devastated. ISIS militants targeted Assyrians in Mosul and the Nineveh Plains, forcing thousands to flee. Churches were destroyed, and cultural heritage sites were looted. ○ In Syria, Assyrians faced displacement due to the conflict, particularly in regions such as Al-Hasakah. Some Assyrians formed self-defense militias to protect their communities. Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Yazidis A religious and ethnic minority ○ Iraq (Sinjar region), Syria, Turkey ○ Germany has the largest diaspora Est. 700K-1mn Speak Kurdish (Kurmanji), Arabic A blend of religions ○ Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Islam ○ Although monotheistic in essence, the symbol of Peacock Angel led to accusations of ‘worshipping the devil’ Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Yazidis The persecution of the Yazidis ○ Under the Ottoman Empire, Yazidis faced violence and forced conversion campaigns, as their faith was not recognized as one of the official “people of the book” religions. ○ During Saddam Hussein’s regime, the Yazidis were subject to Arabization policies, where they were forced to register as Arabs and relocate from their ancestral lands. ○ ISIS militants overran the Sinjar region in 2014, killing thousands of Yazidi men and capturing thousands of women and children. Yazidi women were enslaved and subjected to sexual violence. ○ The UN officially recognized the ISIS campaign against Yazidis as genocide in 2016. This genocide displaced the majority of the Yazidi population, with many fleeing to the Kurdish region of Iraq or Europe. Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Druze A religious and ethnic minority Est. 1.1 million ○ Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Jordan A secretive and esoteric faith ○ A mixture of Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Greek philosophy Speak mostly Arabic ○ But other languages are also spoken Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Druze The political and social role of the Druze ○ Lebanon: The Druze are recognized as one of the 18 sects in the country’s confessional political system. They hold significant political influence, with leaders like Walid Jumblatt playing key roles in national politics. ○ Israel: Unlike many other Arab citizens, Israeli Druze participate actively in the Israeli military and government, although some tensions exist, especially around issues related to the Golan Heights and the Jewish Nation-State Law. ○ Syria: Druze communities in Syria have largely sought neutrality in the ongoing civil war but have occasionally clashed with various factions to defend their autonomy. Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Arabs in Israel A significant ethnic minority Around 2 million (20% of Israel’s population) ○ Those who remained within Israeli borders after the 1948 war They are citizens of Israel Sunni Muslims, Christians, and Druze Many identify with a dual identity ○ Citizens of Israel & Members of the Palestinian nation ○ Problematic integration Ethnic minorities in MENA: The Arabs in Israel Challenges and discrimination ○ The Nation-State Law of 2018 defines Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people, relegating non- Jewish citizens to second-class status. ○ Palestinian Arabs face restrictions on land ownership and urban development. Many of their villages are unrecognized by the state, lacking access to services like water and electricity. ○ While Palestinian Arabs can vote and participate in national elections, their representation in the Knesset is limited, and their political parties (Balad, Hadash, Ra’am) are often excluded from government coalitions. ○ Palestinian Arabs experience higher poverty rates and lower employment levels compared to the Jewish population. They face discrimination in the labor market and underinvestment in education and healthcare in Arab-majority areas. ○ While Arabic was an official language before 2018, it was removed by the law and given a ‘special status’. Ethnic minorities: Why suppress? Many minorities, such as the Kurds and Berbers, have sought autonomy, threatening centralized power. Fear of secession leads to military suppression. Groups like the Yazidis and Assyrians face discrimination due to their distinct religious practices. Threats to majority religious identity attracts suppression. Many minorities are considered by the majority as a fifth column. Lack of strong legal frameworks exacerbates this situation. Minorities often lack representation in government, limiting their ability to advocate for their rights. This makes it easier to suppress them. Many minority regions suffer from underdevelopment and lack of state investment - blocking their growth to a challenging position. Ethnic minorities: Morally Acceptable Solutions Legal protections and anti-discrimination laws ○ Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the US; Post-apartheid constitution in S. Africa Power-sharing and political representation ○ Lebanon’s confessional system Cultural autonomy and federalism ○ Kurdistan region in Iraq; Quebec in Canada Multicultural policies Reconciliation processes ○ S. Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission; Australia’s Stolen Generations Ethnic minorities: Morally Unacceptable Solutions Forced assimilation ○ China’s attempt to erase Uyghur culture; Turkey’s ban on Kurdish language Segregation and apartheid ○ S. Africa before Mandela; Palestinians under occupation Expulsion and ethnic cleansing ○ Mass expulsion of Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar, Bosniaks by Serbs, Palestinians by Israel, Armenians by Turkey Mass violence, massacres, and genocide ○ The Srebrenica massacre in Bosnia, Halabja massacre in Iraq; Holocaust during WWII; ISIS genocide against Yazidis