Week 1 Midterm LEA PDF

LESSON 2: JAPAN POLICE SYSTEM (https://www.npa.go.jp/english/Police_of_Japan/Police_of_Japan_2018_full_text.pdf) Law enforcement in Japan is provided by the Prefectural Police under the oversight of the National Police Agency or NPA. The NPA is headed by the National Public Safety Commission thus...

LESSON 2: JAPAN POLICE SYSTEM (https://www.npa.go.jp/english/Police_of_Japan/Police_of_Japan_2018_full_text.pdf) Law enforcement in Japan is provided by the Prefectural Police under the oversight of the National Police Agency or NPA. The NPA is headed by the National Public Safety Commission thus ensuring that Japan's police are an apolitical body and free of direct central government executive control. They are checked by an independent judiciary and monitored by a free and active press. HISTORICAL SECRET POLICE ORGANIZATIONS 1. Tokko Special Higher Police Investigated and controlled political groups and ideologies deemed to be a threat to public order. 2. Kempeitai Military Police of the Imperial Japanese Army 3. Tokeitai Military Police of the Imperial Japanese Navy ▪ After Japan's surrender in 1945, occupation authorities retained the pre-war police structure until a new system was implemented and the Diet passed the 1947 Police Law. Contrary to Japanese proposals for a strong, centralized force to deal with postwar unrest, the police system was decentralized. About 1,600 independent municipal forces were established in cities, towns, and villages with 5,000 inhabitants or more, and a National Rural Police was organized by prefecture. Civilian control was to be ensured by placing the police under the jurisdiction of public safety commissions controlled by the National Public Safety Commission in the Office of the Prime Minister. The Home Ministry was abolished and replaced by the less powerful Ministry of Home Affairs, and the police were stripped of their responsibility for fire protection, public health, and other administrative duties. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION NATIONAL PUBLIC SAFETY COMMISSION ▪ It is under the Ministry of Home Affairs. ▪ Its Mission is to guarantee the neutrality of the police by insulating the force from political pressure and to ensure the maintenance of democratic methods in police administration. The commission's primary function is to supervise the National Police Agency, and it has the authority to appoint or dismiss senior police officers. The commission consists of a chairman, who holds the rank of minister of state, and five members appointed by the prime  minister with the consent of both houses of the Diet. The commission operates independently of the cabinet, but liaison and coordination with it are facilitated by the chairman's being a member of that body. NATIONAL POLICE AGENCY As the central coordinating body for the entire police system, the National Police Agency determines general standards and policies; detailed direction of operations is left to the lower echelons. In a national emergency or large-scale disaster, the agency is authorized to take command of prefectural police forces. In 1989 the agency was composed of about 1,100 national civil servants, empowered to collect information and to formulate and execute national policies. Headed by a commissioner general who is appointed by the National Public Safety Commission with the approval of the prime minister. The Central Office includes the Secretariat, with divisions for general operations, planning, information, finance, management, and procurement and distribution of police equipment, and five bureaus. a. Police Administration Bureau The Administration Bureau is concerned with police personnel, education, welfare, training, and unit inspections. b. Criminal Investigation Bureau The Criminal Investigation Bureau is in charge of research statistics and the investigation of nationally important and international cases. This bureau's Safety Department is responsible for crime prevention, combating juvenile delinquency, and pollution control. In addition, the Criminal Investigation Bureau surveys, formulates, and recommends legislation on firearms, explosives, food, drugs, and narcotics. The Communications Bureau supervises police communications systems. c. Traffic Bureau The Traffic Bureau licenses drivers, enforces traffic safety laws, and regulates traffic. Intensive traffic safety and driver education campaigns are run at both national and prefectural levels. The bureau's Expressway Division addresses special conditions of the nation's growing system of express highways. d. Security Bureau The Security Bureau formulates and supervises the execution of security policies. It conducts research on equipment and tactics for suppressing riots and oversees and coordinates activities of the riot police. The Security Bureau is also responsible for  security intelligence on foreigners and radical political groups, including investigation of violations of the Alien Registration Law and administration of the Entry and Exit Control Law. The bureau also implements security policies during national emergencies and natural disasters. e. Regional Public Safety Bureaus The National Police Agency has seven regional police bureaus, each responsible for a number of prefectures. Each is headed by a Director and they are organization similar to the Central Office. They are located in major cities of each geographic region. The Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department and Hokkaido Prefectural Police Headquarters are excluded from the jurisdiction of RPBs. Headed by a Director General; each RPB exercises necessary control and supervision over and provides support services to prefectural police within its jurisdiction, under the authority and orders of NPA's Commissioner General. Attached to each Regional Police Bureaus is a Regional Police School which provides police personnel with education and training required of staff officers as well as other necessary education and training. REGIONAL POLICE BUREAUS: Tohoku - Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi, Akita, Yamagata, and Fukushima Prefectures Kinki - Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara, and Wakayama Prefectures Shikoku - Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kochi Prefectures Kanto - Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Kanagawa, Niigata, Yamanashi, Nagano, and Shizuoka Prefectures Chubu - Toyama, Ishikawa, Fukui, Gifu, Aichi, Mie, Prefectures Kyushu - Fukuoka, Saga, Nagasaki, Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, and Okinawa Prefectures Chugoku - Tottori, Shimane, Okayama, Hiroshima, and Yamaguchi Prefectures POLICE COMMUNICATIONS DIVISIONS Are excluded from the regional jurisdictions and are run more autonomously than other local forces. The National Police Agency maintains police communications divisions in these two areas to handle any coordination needed between national and local forces. 1. Metropolitan Tokyo - Because of its special urban situation. 2. Island of Hokkaidō - Because of its distinctive geography. IMPERIAL GUARD In 1947 the Imperial Police Headquarters (Kōgū-Keisatsu Honbu?) was created under the control of the Home Ministry from the Imperial Household Ministry. It came under the aegis of the National Police Agency of Japan in 1957. It provides personal security for the Emperor, Crown Prince and other members of the Imperial Family of Japan, as well as protection of imperial properties, including the Tokyo Imperial Palace, Kyoto Imperial Palace, Katsura Imperial Villa, Shugakuin Imperial Villa (both in Kyoto), Shosoin Imperial Repository in Nara and the imperial villas as Hayama, Kanagawa and Nasu, Tochigi. STRENGTH As of 2017, the total strength reached approximately 296,700 personnel. NPA is approximately 7,800: 2,100 police officers, 900 Imperial guards, and 4,800police staff. The total strength of the Prefectural Police is approximately 288,000: 260,400 police officers and 28,400 police staff. Nationwide, there are approximately 23,400 female police officers and 13,000 female police staff. LOCAL ORGANIZATION There are some 289,000 police officers nationwide, about 97 percent of whom were affiliated with local police forces. Local forces include: Forty-three prefectural (ken) police forces; Tokyo Metropolitan (to) police force, in Tokyo; Two urban prefectural (fu) police forces, in Osaka and Kyoto; and One district (dō) police force, in Hokkaidō. These forces have limited authority to initiate police actions. Their most important activities are regulated by the National Police Agency, which provides funds for equipment, salaries, riot control, escort, and natural disaster duties, and for internal security and multiple jurisdiction cases. National police statutes and regulations establish the strength and rank allocations of all local personnel and the locations of local police stations. Prefectural police finance and control the patrol officer on the beat, traffic control, criminal investigations, and other daily operations. PREFECTURAL POLICE  Each prefectural police headquarters contains administrative divisions corresponding to those of the bureaus of the National Police Agency. Headquarters are staffed by specialists in basic police functions and administration and are commanded by an officer appointed by the local office of the National Public Safety Commission. Most arrests and investigations are performed by prefectural police officials (and, in large jurisdictions, by police assigned to substations), who are assigned to one or more central locations within the prefecture. Experienced officers are organized into functional bureaus and handle all but the most ordinary problems in their fields. KŌBAN Kōbans are substations near major transportation hubs and shopping areas and in residential districts. They form the first line of police response to the public. The Koban system is composed of about 6500 police boxes (Koban) and about 7600 residential police boxes (Chuzaisho). Koban is staffed by relatively small number of police officers (3-5 officers in usual), and also Chuzaisho is usually staffed by a single officer. About 20 percent of the total police force is assigned to koban. Staffed by officers working in eight-hour shifts, they serve as a base for foot patrols and usually have both sleeping and eating facilities for officers on duty but not on watch. In rural areas, residential offices usually are staffed by one police officer who resides in adjacent family quarters. These officers endeavor to become a part of the community, and their families often aid in performing official tasks. Vigilance at the Koban and Chuzaisho is maintained by standing watch in front or sitting watch inside, enabling police officers to respond immediately to any incident. While keeping a constant watch, they perform a myriad of routine tasks, such as receiving crime reports from citizens, handling lost and found articles, counseling citizens in trouble and giving directions. Outside their Koban and Chuzaisho, police officers patrol their beats either on foot, by bicycle or by car. While on patrol, they gain a precise knowledge of the topography and terrain of the area, question suspicious-looking persons, provide traffic guidance and enforcement, instruct juveniles, rescue the injured, warn citizens of imminent dangers and protect lost children and those under the influence or intoxicated. Radio-equipped patrol cars are deployed at each PPH, police station, Koban and Chuzaisho. Police officers use them for routine patrol and rapid response. These cars remain in constant radio contact with their police station and the communications command center of the PPH. When an emergency is reported, this rapid response capability plays a major role in the quick resolution of such incidents. Officers assigned to koban have intimate knowledge of their jurisdictions. One of their primary tasks is to conduct twice-yearly house-by-house residential surveys of homes in their areas, at which time the head of the household at each address fills out  a residence information card detailing the names, ages, occupations, business addresses, and vehicle registration numbers of household occupants and the names of relatives living elsewhere. Police take special note of names of the aged or those living alone who might need special attention in an emergency. They conduct surveys of local businesses and record employee names and addresses, in addition to such data as which establishments stay open late and which employees might be expected to work late. Participation in the survey is voluntary, and most citizens cooperate, but an increasing segment of the population has come to regard the surveys as invasions of privacy. RIOT POLICE Within their security divisions, each prefecture level police department and the Tokyo police maintain Kidotai, special riot units. These units were formed after riots at the Imperial Palace in 1952, to respond quickly and effectively to large public disturbances. They are also used in crowd control during festival periods, at times of natural disaster, and to reinforce regular police when necessary. Full-time riot police can also be augmented by regular police trained in riot duties. Currently, there are 10,000 in the whole riot force. The riot police are committed to using disciplined, nonlethal force and do not carry firearms while engaged in riot control duties. They are trained to take pride in their poise under stress. Demonstrators also are usually restrained. Police brutality is rarely an issue. When excesses occur, the perpetrator is disciplined and sometimes transferred from the force if considered unable to keep his temper. Extensive experience in quelling violent disorders led to the development of special uniforms and equipment for the riot police units. Riot dress consists of a field-type jacket, which covered several pieces of body armor and includes a corselet hung from the waist, an aluminum plate down the spine, and shoulder pads. Armored gauntlets cover the hands and forearms. Helmets have faceplates and flared padded skirts down the back to protect the neck. In case of violence, the front ranks carry 1.2-meter shields to protect against stave and rocks and hold nets on high poles to catch flying objects. Specially designed equipment includes water cannons, armored vans, and mobile tunnels for protected entry into seized buildings. Because riot police duties require special group action, units are maintained in virtually self-sufficient compounds and trained to work as a coordinated force. The overwhelming majority of officers are bachelors who live in dormitories within riot police compounds. Training is constant and focuses on physical conditioning, mock battles, and tactical problems. A military atmosphere prevails—dress codes, behavior standards, and rank differentiations are more strictly adhered to than in the regular police. Esprit de corps is inculcated with regular ceremonies and institutionalization of rituals such as applauding  personnel dispatched to or returning from assignments and formally welcoming senior officers to the mess hall at all meals. Riot duty is not popular because it entails special sacrifices and much boredom in between irregularly spaced actions. Although many police are assigned riot duty, only a few are volunteers. For many personnel, riot duty serves as a stepping stone because of its reputation and the opportunities it presents to study for the advanced police examinations necessary for promotion. Because riot duties demand physical fitness—the armored uniform weighed 6.6 kilograms—most personnel are young, often serving in the units after an initial assignment in a koban. SPECIAL POLICE In addition to regular police officers, there are several thousand officials attached to various agencies who perform special duties relating to public safety. They are responsible for such matters as forest preservation, narcotics control, fishery inspection, and enforcement of regulations on maritime, labor, and mine safety. SPECIAL OPERATIONS The National Police Agency has a counter-terrorist unit known as the Special Assault Team, operating under police control. A small number of anti-riot-trained police officers had been trained to handle incidents that cannot be dealt with by regular police and riot police officers, but can operate independently or with SAT cooperation. These units include the Special Investigations Team of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police, the Osaka Police's Martial Arts Attack Team and the Chiba Police's Attack Response Team. RANKING SYSTEM Police officers are divided into Eleven (11) ranks: Commissioner General (Keisatsu-chō Chōkan) - The Chief of the National Police Agency Superintendent General (Keishi-sōkan) - The Chief of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department Senior Commissioner (Keishi-kan) - Deputy Commissioner General, Deputy Superintendent General, The Chief of Regional Police Bureau, The Chief of Prefectural Police Headquarters. Commissioner (Keishi-chō) - The Chief of Prefectural Police Headquarters. Assistant Commissioner (Keishi-sei) - The Chief of Police Station. Superintendent (Keishi) - The Chief of Police Station (small or middle), The Vice Commanding Officer of Police Station, Commander of Riot Police Unit  Chief Inspector (Keibu) - Squad Commander of Police Station, Leader of Riot Company Inspector (Keibu-ho) - Squad Sub-Commander of Police Station, Leader of Riot Platoon Police Sergeant (Junsa-buchō) - Field supervisor, Leader of Police box Senior Police Officer (Junsa-chō) - (Honorary rank of Police Officers) Police officer (Junsa) - Prefectural Police Officers' careers start from this rank. The NPA Commissioner General holds the highest position of the Japanese police. His title is not a rank, but rather denotes his position as head of the NPA. On the other hand, the MPD Superintendent General represents not only the highest rank in the system but also assignment as head of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department. CONDITIONS OF SERVICE Education is highly stressed in police recruitment and promotion. Entrance to the force is determined by examinations administered by each prefecture. Examinees are divided into two groups: upper-secondary-school graduates and university graduates. Recruits underwent rigorous training—one year for upper-secondary school graduates and six months for university graduates—at the residential police academy attached to the prefectural headquarters. On completion of basic training, most police officers are assigned to local police boxes called Kobans. Promotion is achieved by examination and requires further course work. In-service training provides mandatory continuing education in more than 100 fields. Police officers with upper-secondary school diplomas are eligible to take the examination for sergeant after three years of on-the-job experience. University graduates can take the examination after only one year. University graduates are also eligible to take the examination for assistant police inspector, police inspector, and superintendent after shorter periods than upper-secondary school graduates. There are usually five to fifteen examinees for each opening. The police forces are subject to external oversight. Although officials of the National Public Safety Commission generally defer to police decisions and rarely exercise their powers to check police actions or operations, police are liable for civil and criminal prosecution, and the media actively publicizes police misdeeds. The Human Rights Bureau of the Ministry of Justice solicits and investigates complaints against public officials, including police, and prefectural legislatures could summon police chiefs for questioning. Social sanctions and peer pressure also constrain police behavior. As in other occupational groups in Japan, police officers develop an allegiance to their own group and a reluctance to offend its principles. POLICE-COMMUNITY RELATIONS Despite legal limits on police jurisdiction, many citizens retain their views of the police as authority figures to whom they can turn for aid. The public often seeks police assistance to settle family quarrels, counsel juveniles, and mediate minor disputes. Citizens regularly consult police for directions to hotels and residences—an invaluable service in cities where streets are often unnamed and buildings are numbered in the order in which they have been built rather than consecutively. Police are encouraged by their superiors to view these tasks as answering the public's demands for service and as inspiring community confidence in the police. Public attitudes toward the police are generally favorable, although a series of incidents of forced confessions in the late 1980s raised some concern about police treatment of suspects held for pretrial detention. FOUR (4) ELEMENTS OF JAPAN’S COMMUNITY SYSTEM 1. Community-based Crime Prevention – Police expand their perception of the community role to make the prevention of crime equal in importance to the law enforcement component. Japan’s Complex Program of the Crime Prevention relies upon the cooperation and support of the community. 2. Reorientation of Patrol Activities – Japanese police are much more on crime prevention in the sense that police activity should resolve problems into many areas of life, to aid the community in resolving problems that could lead to disorder. A major part of this effort is the counseling services that are an essential part of every Japanese police station. Counseling is sought for a broad range of problems. Police are able to provide a helpful, informal conciliation. They recognize that since they are the “most pervasive” government agency in society, advice from them can save people from agonizing steps. 3. Increase Accountability to the Public - police and community are co-producers of an orderly society. Police share power with the community they serve through a closer relation with community groups to help obtain information, define priorities, and in planning effective strategies. 4. Decentralization of Command – Japanese police officers were given greater discretion to develop responses to community problems by having in the neighborhood police center or beat offices. These specific responses enhance police-community cooperation. UNITED STATES POLICE SYSTEM Law enforcement in the United States is one of three major components of the criminal justice system of the United States, along with courts and corrections. Although there exists an inherent interrelatedness between the different groups that make up the criminal justice system based on their crime deterrence purpose, each component operates independently from one another. However, the judiciary is vested with the power to make legal determinations regarding the conduct of the other two components. Apart from maintaining order and service functions, the purpose of policing is the investigation of suspected criminal activity and the referral of the results of investigations and of suspected criminals to the courts. Law enforcement, to varying degrees at different levels of government and in different agencies, is also commonly charged with the responsibilities of deterring criminal activity and of preventing the successful commission of crimes in progress the service and enforcement of warrants, writs and other orders of the courts. Law enforcement agencies are also involved in providing first response to emergencies and other threats to public safety; the protection of certain public facilities and infrastructure; the maintenance of public order; the protection of public officials; and the operation of some correctional facilities (usually at the local level). TYPES OF POLICE Policing in the United States is conducted by numerous types of agency at many different levels. Every state has their own nomenclature for agencies, and their powers, responsibilities and funding vary from state to state. 1. FEDERAL POLICE Possess full federal authority as given to them under United States Code (U.S.C.). Federal Law Enforcement Officers are authorized to enforce various laws at the federal level. The agencies have nationwide jurisdiction for enforcement of federal law. All federal agencies are limited by the U.S. Code to investigating only matters that are explicitly within the power of the federal government. However, federal investigative powers have become very broad in practice, especially since the passage of the USA PATRIOT Act. The Department of Justice (DOJ) is responsible for most law enforcement duties at the federal level. It includes the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF), the United States Marshals Service, the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) and others. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is another branch with numerous federal law enforcement agencies reporting to it. U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), United States Secret Service (USSS), United States Coast Guard (USCG), and the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) are some of the agencies that report to DHS. The federal government is prohibited from exercising general police powers due to restrictions in the constitution, because the United States is organized as a union of sovereign states, which each retain their police, military and domestic law-making powers. For example, the State's National Guard is the state's military. The constitution gives the federal government the power to deal with foreign affairs and interstate affairs (affairs between the states). For policing, this means that if a non-federal crime is committed in a state and the fugitive does not flee the state, the federal government has no jurisdiction. However, once the fugitive crosses a state line, he or she violates the federal law of  interstate flight and is subject to federal jurisdiction, at which time federal law enforcement agencies may become involved. Some Federal Agencies having certain Police Functions: 1.1. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (Department of Justice) – It investigates all violations of Federal Law except those where enforcement authority has been specifically assigned to some other Federal Agency; also investigates all cases of espionage, sabotage, treason and other matters pertaining to internal security. 1.2. United States Secret Service (Department of Treasury) – chiefly concerned with investigating the counterfeiting, forging, or altering of any of the money or other securities of the U.S.A; also charged with the protection of the President and his family and of the Executive Mansion Grounds. 1.3. Bureau of Narcotics (Department of Treasury) – investigates all violations of Federal laws relating to narcotic drugs and marijuana. 1.4. Bureau of the Chief Post Office Inspector – investigates mail losses, mail depredations, unlawful use of marks, and other violation of the postal laws. 1.5. Immigration and Naturalization Service (Department of Justice) – investigates violation of immigration and naturalization laws, patrol borders to prevent surreptitious entry of aliens, and registers and fingerprints aliens. 1.6. Intelligence Unit of the Bureau of Internal Revenue (Department of Treasury) – concerned primarily with the investigations of violation of income tax laws. 1.7. Alcohol Tax Unit of the Bureau of Internal Revenue (Department of Treasury) – investigates violation of internal revenue laws relating to liquors. 1.8. Divisions of Investigation and Patrol of Bureau of Customs (Department of Treasury) – concerned primarily with the investigations of smuggling activities and enforcers customs and navigation laws. 1.9. The U.S. Marshall Service - the oldest federal police force in the country. They’re in charge of conducting the safe transfer of federal prisoners and protecting federal courts and judges. They also serve as covert law enforcement on U.S. air carriers. 2. STATE POLICE States operate statewide government agencies that provide law enforcement duties, including investigations and state patrols. They may be called State Police, State Patrol or Highway Patrol, and are normally part of the state Department of Public Safety. In addition, the Attorney General's office of each state has their own state bureaus of investigation. In Texas the Texas Ranger Division fulfills this role though they have their history in the period before Texas became a state.  Various departments of State Governments may have their own enforcement division such as capitol police, Campus Police, State Hospitals, Departments of Correction, Water police, environmental (fish and game/wildlife) Game Wardens or Conservation Officers (who have full police powers and statewide jurisdiction). In Colorado, for instance, the Department of Revenue has its own investigative branch, as do many of the state funded universities. 3. COUNTY Also known as parishes and boroughs, county law enforcement is provided by Sheriffs' Departments or Offices and County police. County police tend to exist only in metropolitan counties and have countywide jurisdiction. In some areas, there is a sheriff's department which only handles minor issues such as service of papers such as a constable in other areas, along with security for the local courthouse. In other areas, there are no county police and the local sheriff is the exclusive law enforcement agency and acts as both sheriff and county police, which is much more common than there being a separate county police force. County police tend to fall into three broad categories: SHERIFFS' OFFICES Full service The most common type, provide all traditional law-enforcement functions, including countywide patrol and investigations irrespective of municipal boundaries. Limited service Along with the above, perform some type of traditional law-enforcement function such as investigations and patrol. This may be limited to security police duties on county properties (and others by contract) to the performance of these duties in unincorporated areas of the county, and some incorporated areas by contract. Restricted service Provide basic court related services such as keeping the county jail, transporting prisoners, providing courthouse security and other duties with regard to service of process and summonses that are issued by county and state courts. The sheriff also often conducts auction sales of real property in foreclosure in many jurisdictions, and is often also empowered to conduct seizures of chattel property to satisfy a judgment. In other jurisdictions, these civil process duties are performed by other officers, such as a marshal or constable. 4. MUNICIPAL Municipal police range from one-officer agencies (sometimes still called the town marshal) to the 40,000 men and women of the New York City Police Department. Most municipal agencies take the form (Municipality Name) Police Department. Many individual cities and towns will have their own police department, with larger communities typically having larger departments with greater budgets, resources, and responsibilities. Metropolitan departments, such as the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, have jurisdiction covering multiple communities and municipalities, often over a wide area typically coterminous with one or more cities or counties. Metropolitan departments have usually have been formed by a merger between local agencies, typically several local police departments and often the local sheriff's department or office, in efforts to provide greater efficiency by centralizing command and resources and to resolve jurisdictional problems, often in communities experiencing rapid population growth and urban sprawl, or in neighboring communities too small to afford individual police departments. Some county sheriff's departments, such as the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, are contracted to provide full police services to local cities within their counties. POLICE FUNCTIONS Three Primary Police Agency Functions The following is cited from The American System of Criminal Justice, by George F. Cole and Christopher E. Smith, 2004, 10th edition, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning: 1. Order maintenance This is the broad mandate to keep the peace or otherwise prevent behaviors which might disturb others. This can deal with things ranging from a barking dog to a fist-fight. By way of description, Cole and Smith note that police are usually called-on to "handle" these situations with discretion, rather than deal with them as strict violations of law, though of course their authority to deal with these situations are based in violations of law. 2. Law enforcement Those powers are typically used only in cases where the law has been violated and a suspect must be identified and apprehended. Most obvious instances include robbery, murder, or burglary. This is the popular notion of the main police function, but the frequency of such activity is dependent on geography and season. 3. Service Services may include rendering first aid, providing tourist information, guiding the disoriented, or acting as educators (on topics such as preventing drug use). Cole and Smith cited one study which showed 80% of all calls for police assistance did not  involve crimes, but this may not be the case in all parts of the country. Because police agencies are traditionally available year-round, 24 hours a day, citizens call upon police departments not only in times of trouble, but also when just inconvenienced. As a result, police services may include roadside auto assistance, providing referrals to other agencies, finding lost pets or property, or checking locks on vacationers' homes. STYLES OF POLICING Given the broad mandates of police work, and yet having limited resources, police administrators must develop policies to prioritize and focus their activities. Some of the more controversial policies restrict, or even forbid, high-speed vehicular pursuits. Three styles of policing develop from a jurisdiction’s socioeconomic characteristics, government organization, and choice of police administrators. According to a study by James Q. Wilson (“Varieties of Police Behavior”, 1968, 1978, Harvard University Press) Watchman. Emphasizes maintaining order, usually found in communities with a declining industrial base, and a blue-collar, mixed ethnic/racial population. This form of policing is implicitly less pro-active than other styles, and certain offenses may be “overlooked” on a variety of social, legal, and cultural grounds, as long as the public order is maintained. Smith and Cole comment the broad discretion exercised in this style of policing can result in charges of discrimination, when it appears police treatment of different groups results in the perception that some groups get better treatment than others; Legalistic. Emphasizes law enforcement and professionalism. This is usually found in reform-minded cities, with mixed socioeconomic composition. Officers are expected to generate a large number of arrests and citations, and act as if there were a single community standard for conduct, rather than different standards for different groups. However, the fact that certain groups are more likely to have law enforcement contact means this strict enforcement of laws may seem overly harsh on certain groups; ▪ Service. Emphasizes the service functions of police work, usually found in suburban, middle-class communities where residents demand individual treatment. Police in homogeneous communities can view their work as protecting their citizens against “outsiders”, with frequent but often-informal interventions against community members. The uniform make-up of the community means crimes are usually more obvious, and therefore less frequent, leaving police free to deal with service functions, and traffic control. ENTRY QUALIFICATIONS Nearly all U.S. states and the federal government have by law adopted minimum-standard standardized training requirements for all officers with powers of arrest within the state. Many standards apply to in-service training as well as entry-level training, particularly in the use of firearms, with periodic re-certification required. These standards often comply with standards promoted by the US Department of Justice. These standards typically require a thorough background check that potential police recruits:  Be a United States citizen (waived in certain agencies if the applicant is a lawful resident). Must have a high school diploma or a G.E.D. and if necessary a college degree or served in the United States military without a dishonorable discharge; Be in good physical and psychological condition; Maintain a clean criminal record without either serious or repeated misdemeanor or any felony convictions; Must have a valid driver's license with a clean driving record and that is not currently or has a history of being suspended or revoked; Be of high moral character; Not have a history of prior narcotic or repeated marijuana use or alcoholism; Not have a history of ethical, professional, prior employment, motor vehicle, or financial improprieties; Not have a history of domestic violence or mental illness; Not to pose a safety and security risk; Be legally eligible to own and carry a firearm. RANKING SYSTEM The United States police rank model is generally quasi military in structure. A general model, from highest to lowest rank, would be: Chief of Police/Police Commissioner/Superintendent/Sheriff Deputy Chief of Police/Deputy Commissioner/ Deputy Superintendent/Undersheriff Inspector/Commander/Colonel Major/Deputy Inspector Captain Lieutenant Sergeant Detective/Inspector/investigator Officer/Deputy Sheriff/Corporal