Week 1 - Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Student Notes 2024 PDF

Human Anatomy and Physiology Week 1: Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology Dr Helen McRobie Background reading Set textbook, Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology chapter 1 Dr Helen McRobie Outline Introduction to...

Human Anatomy and Physiology Week 1: Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology Dr Helen McRobie Background reading Set textbook, Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology chapter 1 Dr Helen McRobie Outline Introduction to the module Visualising the body Overview of organ systems Anatomical terminology Body cavities Homeostasis  Anatomy and physiology throughout the Biomedical Science degree Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Human Anatomy and Physiology of Current Advances Physiology (HAP) Organ Systems in Biomedical Science Clinical Immunology Human Pathology Blood Sciences Specialist Topics in Biomedical Science Diagnostic Core Biology Techniques in Pathology Principles of Pathology  HAP assessments Human Anatomy and Physiology Trimester 1 Trimester 2 100% Module leader: Dr Helen McRobie One assessment Practical One assessment Practical Element 010: skills: based on skills: base on pipetting 20% microscopy skills (10%) skills (10%) One written coursework: One written coursework: Element 011: Group poster (20%) Scientific writing (20%) 40% Element 012: One test: 60 MCQs, on paper, timed (20%) One test: 60 MCQs, on paper, timed (20%) 40%  Canvas: virtual learning environment Each week of the trimester has the following: Trimester 1 week 1: Topic for the week All lecture materials, practical protocols if there is a practical, recordings and other materials Learning resources week 1 Useful notes on the topic and Connect links for the week  Anatomy and physiology of the human body Anatomy - study of structure Physiology - study of function Structure and function are always related Structure (anatomy) and function (physiology) Structure – alveoli of lung - large surface area Function – efficient gas exchange for blood Structure determined by function Gross (macroscopic) anatomy Dissection  In vivo imaging techniques X-rays Computer tomography scans (CT scan) Ultrasound Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Positron emission tomographic scan (PET) PET scan CT scan MRI scan X-ray Ultrasound Computed tomography (CT) Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Positron emission tomography (PET)  Visualising the body Echocardiography Endoscopy Barium meal  Microscopic anatomy Histology study of tissues Cytology study of cellular structures  The basic units of life Cells - basic structural and functional units of organism average adult has nearly 100 trillion cells about 300 different kinds about 210 distinguished under light microscopy Different cell functions Cellular diversity permits organisation of cells into more complex tissues and organs Activity The four basic tissues All cells in body combine to make only 4 basic tissue types: Connective Epithelial Nervous Muscular  Tissues Tissues - group of similar cells and the substances surrounding them that function together to carry out specialized activities Range from hard (bone) to semisolid (fat) to liquid (blood)  2 2 CELLULAR LEVEL 1 CHEMICAL 1 LEVEL 3 TISSUE 3 LEVEL Smooth muscle cell Atoms (C, H, O, N, P) Smooth muscle tissue Molecule (DNA) Serous 4 ORGAN 4 LEVEL membrane 5 SYSTEM 5 LEVEL Esophagus Smooth muscle Liver tissue layers Stomach Stomach Pancreas Epithelial Gallbladder tissue Small intestine Large intestine Digestive system 6 ORGANISMAL LEVEL Activity Eleven organ systems Urinary Digestive Cardiovascular Integumentary Skeletal Respiratory Reproductive Nervous Endocrine Lymphatic Muscular  Integumentary system Major components Major functions Skin Protection from environmental Hair hazards Sweat glands Helps regulate body Nails temperature Provides sensory information Vitamin D  Muscular system Major components Major functions Skeletal muscles Movement Tendons Protection and support for other tissues Heat generation - maintains body temperature  Skeletal system Major components Major functions Bones Support and protection Cartilage Store of calcium and Associated ligaments other minerals Bone marrow Forms blood cells  Nervous system Major components Major functions Brain Directs immediate and Spinal cord long term responses to Peripheral nerves stimuli Sense organs Interprets and coordinates activities of other organ systems Detects changes in external and internal environment  Endocrine system Major functions Major components – Regulates body – Pineal gland activities via hormones – Hypothalamus – Adjusts metabolic – Thymus activity, energy use – Pituitary gland – Controls many – Thyroid gland structural, functional changes during – Pancreas development – Adrenal glands – Testes, ovaries – Endocrine tissues in other systems  Cardiovascular system Major components Major functions Heart Distributes blood cells, water, Blood dissolved materials such as Blood vessels nutrients, waste products, oxygen, carbon dioxide Distributes heat, assists in temperature control Immunity  Lymphatic system Major components Major functions Spleen Defends against infection and Thymus disease Lymphatic vessels Returns tissue fluids to the Lymph nodes bloodstream Tonsils  Respiratory system Major components Major functions Nasal cavities Transfers oxygen from Sinuses inhaled air to blood Larynx Removes carbon dioxide Trachea from blood to exhaled air Bronchi Produces sounds as air Lungs flows through vocal cords  Digestive system Major components Major functions – Teeth – Processes, digests – Tongue food – Pharynx – Absorbs, conserves – Oesophagus water – Stomach – Absorbs nutrients – Small intestine – Stores energy reserves – Large intestine – Eliminates solid wastes – Liver – Gallbladder – Pancreas  Urinary system Major components Major functions Kidneys Produces, stores, eliminates Ureters waste products from blood Urinary bladder Controls water balance Urethra Regulates blood ion concentrations, pH  Reproductive system (male) Major components Major functions Testes Production of gametes Epididymis (sperm) Ductus deferens Production of hormones Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Penis Scrotum  Reproductive system (female) Major components Major functions Ovaries Produces gametes (oocytes) Uterine tubes Supports developing embryo Uterus Provides milk for infant Vagina Labia Clitoris Mammary glands  Mouth Food CO2 O2 External environment Animal d l oo Respiratory B Digestive system system Heart Interstitial fluid Nutrients Circulatory system Body cells Urinary system Anus Unabsorbed matter (faeces) Metabolic waste products (urine)  Anatomical terminology Superior - towards the head Inferior - away from the head Anterior - nearer front of the body Posterior - nearer back of the body Medial - nearer to midline Lateral - farther from midline Proximal - nearer to attachment of a limb to trunk Distal - farther from attachment of a limb to trunk Superficial – on the surface Deep - interior  Anatomical terminology 1 Anatomical Position. Body erect, face forward, feet together, palms face forward Other Body Positions Supine: lying face upward Prone: lying face downward Directional Terms. Superior (Cephalic) vs. Inferior (Caudal) toward or away from the head Medial vs. Lateral relative to the midline Proximal vs. Distal used to describe linear structures Superficial vs. Deep relative to the surface of the body Anatomical terminology 2 Directional Terms Anterior (Ventral) vs. Posterior (Dorsal). Anterior is forward; posterior is toward the back Body parts and regions 1 Body parts and regions 2  Planes through the body 1 Sagittal divides body into left and right portions. Median is a sagittal plane down the midline of body. Frontal (coronal) divides body into anterior and posterior sections. Transverse (horizontal) divides body into superior and inferior sections. Oblique: Other than at a right angle. Planes through the body 2 Planes Midsagittal brain section Frontal (or coronal) brain section Transverse (or horizontal) brain section  Planes through an organ Longitudinal: cut along the length of an organ Transverse (cross): cut at right angle to the length of the organ Oblique: cut at any but a right angle Body cavities Body contains dorsal and ventral body cavities. Dorsal body cavity: Cranial cavity houses the brain Vertebral canal houses the spinal cord Ventral body cavity contains majority of viscera; divisions include: Thoracic cavity, which is further divided into pleural cavities, each enclosing a lung, and a medial mediastinum, which contains the heart, some major blood vessels, thymus, trachea, esophagus Abdominopelvic cavity, consisting of the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity Abdominal: contains many digestive organs (e.g., stomach, intestines, liver) and spleen Pelvic: contains urinary bladder, urethra, rectum, reproductive organs Trunk cavities Serous membranes Cover the organs of trunk cavities and line the cavity Fist represents an organ Inner balloon wall represents visceral serous membrane Outer balloon wall represents parietal serous membrane Cavity between two membranes filled with lubricating serous fluid that is produced by the membranes  Location of serous membranes Pericardium surrounds the heart Pleura surrounds the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity Peritoneum surrounds many abdominal organs and lines the abdominopelvic cavity  Characteristics of life Organisation Metabolism Responsiveness Growth Development Differentiation Reproduction Movement All must function together in a process called homeostasis Survival needs Nutrients Oxygen Water Normal body temperature Appropriate atmospheric pressure  Homeostasis is essential to life Homeostasis - maintenance of relatively constant internal environment Physiological systems have evolved to maintain homeostasis in constantly changing environments Physiological systems controlled by nervous and endocrine systems Regulation of internal environment requires information Most diseases - breakdown in homeostasis  Homeostasis and body fluids Maintaining volume and composition of body fluids is important Intracellular Fluid (ICF) Fluid within cells Extracellular Fluid (ECF) Fluid outside cells Interstitial fluid - ECF between cells and tissues  Internal environment Interstitial Cellular function depends on regulating fluid composition of interstitial fluid Intracellular fluid Substances move between plasma (blood vessels), interstitial fluid and cells – three compartments closely interdependent Movement back and forth across capillary walls provides nutrients (glucose, oxygen, ions) to tissue cells, removes waste (carbon dioxide)  Control of homeostasis Homeostasis is constantly being disrupted Physical insults For example: intense heat, lack of oxygen Changes in internal environment For example: drop in blood glucose due to lack of food Physiological stress For example: exercise, thirst etc. Disruptions Mild, temporary (balance is quickly restored) Intense, prolonged (poisoning, severe infections)  Feedback systems Cycle of events: Body constantly monitored/ re-monitored Monitored variables - controlled conditions Three basic components: Receptor Control center Effector  Homeostasis requirements A homeostatic system has 3 requirements: Receptor sensitive to particular stimulus for example: thermoreceptors in skin, send messages to … Control centre receives and processes information – usually the brain – sends commands to … Effector cell/organ that responds to commands for example: muscle shivering/sweating Set points Values of variables fluctuate around set point to establish normal range of values Set point: ideal normal value of a variable Changes in blood pressure during exercise  Feedback system Blood Pressure (BP) regulation - negative feedback system (loop) External/internal stimulus increases BP Baroreceptors (pressure-sensitive receptors) detect higher BP – send nerve impulse to brain (integration) Responses sent via nerve impulses to heart, blood vessels - cause BP to drop (homeostasis restored) Negative feedback regulation of blood sugar Negative feedback regulation of body temperature Negative feedback control of body temperature Positive feedback When a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater. Unusual in normal, healthy individuals, leads away from homeostasis and can result in death. Example of normal positive feedback: childbirth. Example of harmful positive feedback: after hemorrhage, blood pressure drops and the heart’s ability to pump blood decreases.  Homeostasis: positive feedback Blood clotting: Blood vessel damaged Feedback initiated Platelets adhere to site, release chemicals More platelets attracted to site Clotting proceeds until damage is repaired  Positive feedback system Childbirth Uterine contractions cause vagina to open Stretch-sensitive receptors in cervix send impulses to brain Oxytocin released into blood Contractions enhanced, baby pushes further down the uterus Cycle continues to birth of baby (no more stretching)