ENG 103 Functional English PDF

ENG 103: Functional English Chapter 1. Understanding Language Skills: Reading Strategies Definition of Reading: Reading is the process of interpreting written symbols to derive meaning. It involves decoding text, recognizing words, and understanding their relationships within sentences and larger texts. Reading is about recognizing words and involves comprehension, critical thinking, and interpretation of the presented ideas. Unfortunately, it is common for students to pay little attention to their approaches to reading, that is, how they read, and how they can improve the effectiveness and speed of their reading. Effective Reading: General Advice The following advice may seem obvious, but is important. Consider where you read. Always read in a well-lit and quiet place that is free of distractions, and do not get into the habit of reading university materials in bed! (unless you want to go to sleep). Do not vocalise as you read. This will slow you down, it won't help your concentration, and it will lead to bad reading approaches. Read at times when you can concentrate, and maintain concentration by taking regular short breaks, perhaps every 30 or 45 minutes. Set yourself reading tasks (10 pages, 1 chapter, 1 section of a chapter etc). Remember that reading often takes longer than you expect and you often need to go beyond set texts. Give yourself enough time. Reading Strategy 1: Purposeful Reading Be very clear about exactly what you are looking for. Do not just read aimlessly. Perhaps you will look for answers to questions, general understanding of a topic or issue, detailed knowledge, a range of perspectives, identifications of a writer's position, evaluation of a writer's position, examples, statistics, definitions, explanations, quotes, etc. Try to have the purpose in writing nearby so you maintain focus. Reading Strategy 2: Scanning Scanning is reading quickly to search for specific information. You may not realise it, but you are already good at scanning. You scan, for example, when checking a TV guide or a phone book. Scanning may allow you to 'read' up to 1500 words a minute. It is especially useful when: You already know what you are looking for (e.g., dates, names, or specific terms). The information is scattered across a large body of text. 1 ENG 103: Functional English You are pressed for time and need to extract relevant information quickly. How to Scan Text: 1. Know what you are looking for: Before you start, be clear about what specific information or detail you need. 2. Move your eyes quickly: Do not read every word. Instead, let your eyes skim over the text, focusing on key elements (like headings, subheadings, or specific words). 3. Use clues: Headings, bolded text, bullet points, and numbers can help guide you to the section where the information might be located. 4. Stop and focus when needed: When your eyes catch the word or phrase you are searching for, slow down and read that part more carefully. Examples of Scanning in Practice: 1. Looking up a Phone Number in a Directory: o If you are searching for a particular name, you do not read every name listed in a phone book or directory. Instead, you scan quickly for the initials or surname to locate the phone number. 2. Finding a Definition in a Textbook: o When you are reading a textbook, you might need to find the definition of a specific term. Instead of reading each sentence, you scan the headings or look for bold or italicized words to locate the term. 3. Checking for Specific Dates in a History Book: o Suppose you are studying for an exam and need to know when a specific event occurred. You might scan the text looking for dates to locate the event you are focused on. 4. Searching for a Specific Section in a Research Paper: o When reading a long research article, you might scan the headings or subheadings for sections such as "Methodology" or "Conclusion" without reading through the entire document. 5. Finding a Particular Ingredient in a Recipe: o If you need to quickly check if a recipe includes a specific ingredient, you can scan the list of ingredients rather than reading the instructions or the entire recipe. Benefits of Scanning: Saves time: It allows you to get the information you need without reading everything. 2 ENG 103: Functional English Increases efficiency: It is an essential skill for students and professionals who often deal with large volumes of text and need to extract specific facts quickly. Improves focus: It helps readers focus on their immediate needs rather than getting bogged down by irrelevant information. By mastering the scanning technique, readers can handle large amounts of text more effectively and locate necessary information faster Reading Strategy 3: Skimming Skimming is reading to gain a general idea. Skimming may allow you to read up to 1000 words a minute. Skimming helps you identify whether or not to continue reading, what to read carefully, and where the best place is to begin. Skimming an academic text immediately before you read it carefully can help you consider what you already know and can help you develop a purpose for reading. An additional skip can also help maximise your interest in the text and your understanding and reflection on the material. Skimming is useful when: You need to understand the general structure or theme of the text. You want to get the gist of an article, essay, or book before deciding to read it in full. You are reviewing a large volume of material quickly. How to Skim a Text: 1. Read titles, headings, and subheadings: These give clues about the main topics covered in the text. 2. Look at the first and last sentences of paragraphs: The first sentence often introduces the main idea, and the last sentence may summarize or conclude it. 3. Pay attention to bold or italicized words: These are usually key terms or important concepts. 4. Glance at diagrams, charts, or bullet points: Visual aids can provide a quick overview of critical information. 5. Read the introduction and conclusion: These sections typically give a summary of the entire text. Examples of Skimming in Practice: 1. Skimming a News Article: o When skimming a news article, you might quickly read the headline and the first paragraph to understand what the article is about. You would then glance through the rest of the article, focusing on any subheadings, quotes, or key information. 3 ENG 103: Functional English 2. Skimming a Textbook Chapter: o Suppose you need to understand the main concepts of a chapter before an exam. You would skim by reading the chapter's title, introduction, headings, subheadings, and summary. You might also read the first sentence of each paragraph and look for bolded or highlighted terms. 3. Skimming a Business Report: o If you receive a long business report, you may not have time to read it thoroughly right away. You would skim by reviewing the executive summary, looking at section titles, and quickly checking charts and tables to get an idea of the report’s conclusions. 4. Skimming a Novel: o If you are deciding whether to read a novel, you might skim the first few pages, read some chapter titles, and glance through a few passages to get a sense of the writing style and the storyline. 5. Skimming a Research Paper: o When reviewing a long research paper, you can skim by reading the abstract, headings, and conclusion to understand the research question, methodology, and results, before deciding to read the entire paper. Benefits of Skimming: Time-efficient: It allows you to quickly understand the key points without reading the entire text. Helps with decision-making: Skimming helps you decide whether the text is worth reading in detail or not. Improves focus on key ideas: It helps you identify the most important sections or concepts in the material. By skimming, readers can effectively navigate through large amounts of information and decide where to focus their deeper reading efforts. This skill is especially helpful for students, researchers, and professionals dealing with extensive reading materials. Reading Strategy 4: Information Words There will be times when you need to do more than skim a text in the way that has been described before but still need to read quickly. This may require the ability to conduct" surface reading" It is worth remembering that no more than 40% of words in an average textbook are "information" words. The other words are like glue and paint: they are there to provide connections and add interest but are not essential for meaning. If you concentrate on information words, you can read faster and with better comprehension. 4 ENG 103: Functional English But how do you learn to pick out the important information words? A large part of the trick involves paying attention to what the author is trying to say. Look for the message and the information words will emerge naturally. Activity: Read the following four paragraphs and see if you can get a sense of the general meaning by only reading the information words that are featured. 1. Some advertisements _______ undesirable effects _______. One form ______ advertising suggests buying ______ brings happiness _____ more ___ happier ____ feel. Parents in particular _____ under pressure ______ this form. Advertisements ______ expensive toys ___ imply ___ greater pleasure than lower priced ____. 2. _________ example _____ children ____ happier _____ video games than _____ Scrabble. ____ not true _____opposite ____ more likely. Advertisements ______ make ____ people ____ more discontented. Activity: Instructions 1. Step 1: Read the Passage Below o Read the short passage provided below. o While reading, try to identify the keywords that carry the most important information. Sample Passage: "The solar system consists of the sun, eight planets, and countless smaller objects such as asteroids and comets. The planets orbit the sun in a predictable, elliptical pattern. Earth, the third planet from the sun, is the only one known to support life." 2. Step 2: Highlight Information Words o Go through the passage and underline or highlight what you think are the most important information words. Example: "The solar system consists of the sun, eight planets, and countless smaller objects such as asteroids and comets. The planets orbit the sun in a predictable, elliptical pattern. Earth, the third planet from the sun, is the only one known to support life." 3. Step 3: Categorize the Information Words o Categorize the information words you highlighted into the following categories: ▪ Nouns: Words that name people, places, things, or ideas (e.g., solar system, sun, planets). 5 ENG 103: Functional English ▪ Verbs: Action words that describe what is happening (e.g., consists, orbit, support). ▪ Adjectives/Adverbs: Words that describe nouns or actions (e.g., elliptical, predictable, only). 4. Step 4: Summarize the Passage Using the Information Words o Now that you have identified the key information words, write a one-sentence summary of the passage using only the most important details. Example Summary: "The solar system includes the sun, eight planets, and smaller objects like asteroids, with Earth being the only planet known to support life." Practice Activity: Practice with a New Text One of man’s oldest sources of power, water, has the additional advantages of being reusable and clean. The energy of water as it rushes downhill in pipes, gives hydroelectric schemes the power to turn their turnings and produce electricity. Wave power is another method of using the energy of water to drive generators to produce electricity. Tidal energy makes use of the ebb and flow of tides in partially enclosed basins such as the Bay of Fundy, in Canada, which has a tidal range of 16 meters! 1. Step 1: Choose a new paragraph from any text (newspaper article, textbook, or an online blog) or the one provided for you. 2. Step 2: Repeat the process of identifying and categorizing the information words. 3. Step 3: Share your results with a partner or in class and compare what others identified as the key information words. Reading Strategy 5: Phrase Reading Watch the eyes of a friend or a member of your family while he or she is reading. You will see that they move along each Ine of print in a series of jerks. The pauses between the jerks are known as fixations. It is during the fixations that your eyes take in words. Poor readers take in only one or two words in each fixation. | This is | how a | poor reader's | eyes move | along | lines of print. | A good reader, on the other hand, takes in several words in each fixation. | This is how | a better reader's | eyes move along | lines of print. | 6 ENG 103: Functional English Reading Strategy 6: Analytical Reading Analytical reading is needed when you want to make sure that you fully grasp and appreciate what you are reading. You may have to read statements more than once, stop to think about them, or jot down keywords when using this style. As a result, your reading rate can easily drop to below 100 words a minute. Activity: Read the following as an example of when slow, careful reading may be needed. One of the first things that should be done in the evaluation of structural equation models is an assessment of the adequacy of input data and the statistical assumption underlying any estimation methods used in the analysis. (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988, p. 76) Reading Strategy 7: Marking the Text If the text you are reading is your own copy, you could also underline keywords, highlight with a marker, or make notes in margins, or alternatively, if you do not own the text, you could use little 'post-it' labels. This process of marking text can help you concentrate (and keep reading) and can help you identify key points and make the book easier to survey later when you need to use it again for your assignment or to revise for an exam, revise effectively later. Reading Strategy 8: Note Making If you do not take notes well or do not take them at all, now is the time to develop this essential skill. Note-making can help you gain deeper understanding and reflection, a better ability to remember, and good exam preparation materials for later. When making notes, keep in mind the following 7 principles: 1. Record publication details Always note the publication details of any text you may use. Specifically, record such things as the title, author, date, publisher, place of publication, URL, and page numbers. 2. Preview the text before you make notes As mentioned earlier, scan, skim, and, surface read the text before noting to help you develop an understanding of the text and awareness of what is important to note. Making notes of everything is a slow, boring, ineffective exercise. 3. Maintain a central place for your notes Where to record your notes is up to you. Some people prefer using a computer, while others use flashcards, folders , or exercise books. What is important is that you will be able to find the notes and understand their layout and content a few weeks or months later. 4. Paraphrase and summarize ideas 7 ENG 103: Functional English Writing out sentences word for word is probably even less useful than just highlighting sentences with a marker. Sure, there will be times when you need to write things word for word (use quotation marks when you do this) but better understanding will come through putting things in your own words. Not sure how to do this? Say the key points in your own words out loud and then write them down. Finish by checking your paraphrase is clear and accurate. 5. Note your thoughts Do not forget the great value of noting beyond just what is said in the text. Note down such things as your ideas, points you agree or disagree with, relevant experiences, questions, examples, and relationships with other texts. Those initial thoughts you have as you read may be of great use later, and it is a mistake to risk forgetting them. 6. Be creative Consider how you should note different parts of texts as well as just what you should note. The process of thinking about how to note can aid understanding as well as the ability to remember information and reflect. Depending on the nature of the information you wish to note, you may choose to use spider diagrams, concept s, maps, titles, columns, dot points, numbers, symbols, colours, pictures, or columns for your reflections. 7. Review your notes Once you have completed some notes, always look back at them and check: 1. Are they accurate? 2. Are they readable? 3. Will you be able to use them later? 4. Do they contain full reference details? Reading Strategy 9: Managing Vocabulary Even if you are a native English speaker, you may at times feel overwhelmed by the amount of unfamiliar vocabulary you encounter. Of course, as a university student, you have a great opportunity and need to build your vocabulary (discipline-specific and general), so consult glossaries and use a dictionary. Keep a list of new words: record their definitions and write example sentences that show meaning and usage. When using your dictionary, be discerning. Know which words can be ignored, and see if it is possible to guess the meanings of words. You may be able to do this if you: 1. Guess using context: 8 ENG 103: Functional English The patient suffered from respiratory ailments, skin problems, anacritis, and hypertension. What could anacritis mean? (Do not worry, It is not a real word!) 2. Guess using prefixes, suffixes, and word stems Antichocoflavourism Aquaenginaacousticology What could these words mean? (Do not worry, It is not a real word!) Reading Strategy 10: Reading with others Consider getting a "study buddy" or study group. Be careful to keep focused on what you need to do and you may find that by sharing notes, explaining, asking, and quizzing each other, you can increase your ability to understand, reflect upon, and remember key points in texts. Finally If you continue to find reading difficult, remember this: Reading at the university level is difficult! However, if you put in the time and effort you may start to enjoy the challenge! 9 ENG 103: Functional English Chapter 2 Reading Comprehension What is Reading Comprehension? Reading comprehension is the ability to understand, interpret, and analyse written texts. It involves not only decoding the words on a page but also grasping the meaning behind those words, making inferences, and critically engaging with the text to form a deeper understanding. Good reading comprehension enables readers to derive meaning from text, connect ideas, and apply what they’ve read in real-world contexts. Key Components of Reading Comprehension: 1. Decoding: The ability to recognize words and understand their meanings. 2. Vocabulary Knowledge: Having a broad vocabulary helps in understanding texts without getting stuck on unfamiliar words. 3. Fluency: Reading fluently means reading at a good pace with accuracy and expression, which helps focus more on understanding rather than just word recognition. 4. Background Knowledge: Having prior knowledge about the topic being read can help in making sense of new information. 5. Inference: The ability to "read between the lines" and understand what is implied but not directly stated. 6. Critical Thinking: The capacity to analyse and evaluate the information in the text, asking questions like "Is this information valid?" or "How does this connect to other things I know?" Levels of Reading Comprehension: 1. Literal Comprehension: Understanding the explicit meaning of the text, such as facts, details, and direct statements. 2. Inferential Comprehension: Understanding the implied or underlying meaning by making logical deductions from the text. 3. Evaluative Comprehension: Critically analysing the text, judging its quality, and determining the author’s purpose, tone, and effectiveness. Tips to Improve Reading Comprehension 1. Preview the Text: 10 ENG 103: Functional English o Before diving into a text, take a few minutes to preview it. Look at the title, headings, subheadings, and any visuals. This will give you an idea of what the text is about and help you set expectations for what you will learn. 2. Build Vocabulary: o A strong vocabulary improves comprehension by reducing the time spent on figuring out individual words. When you encounter unfamiliar words, use context clues to guess their meaning or look them up. Keeping a personal word list can help reinforce new vocabulary. 3. Ask Questions While Reading: o Engage with the text by asking yourself questions like: "What is the main idea?", "What point is the author trying to make?", or "How does this information relate to what I already know?" This keeps you focused and deepens your understanding. 4. Make Inferences: o Try to read between the lines. Authors do not always state everything explicitly, so use context clues to infer meanings or outcomes. For example, if a character is described as frowning and slamming doors, you can infer that they are upset. 5. Summarize the Text: o After reading a passage, try to summarize it in your own words. This helps reinforce your understanding of the main ideas and ensures you are grasping the essential points of the text. 6. Take Notes or Highlight Key Information: o Jotting down important points or highlighting key sentences as you read helps organize information. Use annotations to mark important details, questions, or points that you would like to revisit. 7. Practice Active Reading: o Engage with the material by mentally processing what you are reading. Instead of just moving your eyes over the words, think critically about the author’s message, the structure of the argument, and the significance of the details. 8. Break Text into Chunks: o If the text is long or complex, break it into smaller sections and focus on understanding one section at a time. This makes the material more manageable and allows for deeper processing of the content. 9. Re-read Difficult Passages: 11 ENG 103: Functional English o If a certain section of the text is hard to understand, do not hesitate to re-read it. Sometimes, a second or third pass can bring clarity as you become more familiar with the content. 10. Connect the Text to Prior Knowledge: o Think about how the new information relates to what you already know. Making connections between the text and your personal experiences or other subjects you’ve studied helps in better retention and understanding. 11. Improve Concentration: o Reading in a quiet environment and eliminating distractions can enhance focus, allowing you to fully engage with the text. 12. Use Graphic Organizers: o Visual aids like concept maps, Venn diagrams, or charts can help you break down and organize complex information. For example, using a flowchart to map out a sequence of events in a historical passage can help track the progression of ideas. 13. Discuss the Text: o Engage in discussions with peers, teachers, or study groups about the material. Explaining concepts to others or debating ideas helps solidify your understanding and provides new insights. 14. Set a Purpose for Reading: o Determine why you are reading the text. Are you reading to gain a general understanding, to find specific details, or to analyse the author’s argument? Having a clear purpose will guide your focus and strategy. 15. Practice Regularly: o Like any skill, reading comprehension improves with regular practice. The more you read, the better you become at understanding different types of texts, from fiction to scientific articles. By consistently applying these tips and strategies, you can significantly improve your reading comprehension, making it easier to digest and engage with complex materials. This is particularly valuable in academic, professional, and every day reading situations. 12 ENG 103: Functional English Activity: Read the following passage and answer the questions. Passage 1: Technology (Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare) Artificial intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the healthcare industry by improving the accuracy of diagnoses, predicting patient outcomes, and personalizing treatment plans. Machine learning algorithms, which allow computers to learn from large sets of data, are particularly promising. AI can analyse complex medical images, recognize patterns that might be missed by the human eye, and even suggest treatment options based on historical data. For example, AI has been used to detect early signs of cancer with remarkable precision. However, while AI offers many benefits, it also raises ethical concerns. Issues such as data privacy, the potential for bias in algorithms, and the need for human oversight in medical decisions must be addressed as AI continues to evolve in healthcare. Questions: 1. What are two ways AI is improving healthcare, according to the passage? 2. How does machine learning contribute to AI in healthcare? 3. Why is AI particularly effective in analysing medical images? 4. What are some of the ethical concerns related to AI in healthcare? 5. Do you think AI will fully replace human doctors in the future? Why or why not? (Opinion-based) Passage 2: Sociology (Urbanization and Its Impact on Society) Urbanization, the process of people moving from rural areas to cities, has dramatically reshaped societies around the world. While urban areas often provide better access to jobs, education, and healthcare, they also create challenges such as overcrowding, pollution, and inadequate housing. In many developing countries, rapid urbanization has led to the growth of slums, where people live in substandard conditions. Additionally, the shift from agrarian lifestyles to urban living can disrupt traditional family structures and cultural practices. On the positive side, cities often foster innovation, cultural exchange, and economic growth, making them hubs of opportunity for those who live there. Questions: 1. What are two positive aspects of urbanization mentioned in the passage? 2. What challenges are associated with rapid urbanization? 3. How does urbanization affect traditional family structures? 4. According to the passage, how do cities contribute to economic growth? 5. What is your opinion on the future of urbanization in developing countries? 13 ENG 103: Functional English Passage 3: Psychology (The Power of Habit) Habits are behaviours that are repeated so frequently that they become automatic. In the brain, habits are stored in a region known as the basal ganglia, which allows us to perform routine tasks without much conscious thought. While habits can be beneficial—helping us save time and energy—they can also be harmful if they involve negative behaviours, such as smoking or procrastination. Changing a habit requires awareness of the behaviour and conscious effort to replace it with a new, healthier habit. The "habit loop" consists of a cue, routine, and reward, and understanding this process is key to breaking bad habits and forming good ones. Questions: 1. Where in the brain are habits stored? 2. What are the three components of the "habit loop" mentioned in the passage? 3. How can understanding the habit loop help individuals change their behaviour? 4. Give an example of a negative habit and how it might be changed using the habit loop. 5. Based on the passage, do you think habits are more beneficial or harmful? Explain your reasoning. Passage 4: Literature (Excerpt from a Classic Novel) As Elizabeth Bennet walked through the garden, her thoughts drifted to the recent conversation she had with Mr. Darcy. His words, though civil, had unsettled her. There was a pride in his tone that she could not ignore. And yet, beneath that pride, Elizabeth sensed something more—something akin to vulnerability. Could it be that the aloof Mr. Darcy, whom she had so often criticized in her mind, was not as detached as he appeared? The thought intrigued her, and despite herself, Elizabeth found that she was curious to know more about this man, whose character seemed so contradictory. Questions: 1. How does Elizabeth feel about Mr. Darcy in this passage? 2. What emotion does Elizabeth sense beneath Mr. Darcy's pride? 3. Why might Elizabeth feel unsettled by her conversation with Mr. Darcy? 4. What does Elizabeth's curiosity suggest about her character? 5. How do you think Elizabeth’s opinion of Mr. Darcy might change as the story progresses? 14 ENG 103: Functional English Passage 5: Environmental Science (Climate Change and Biodiversity) Climate change is having a profound effect on the planet's biodiversity. As global temperatures rise, ecosystems are being altered, and many species are struggling to adapt. For example, polar bears, which rely on sea ice to hunt for seals, are facing habitat loss as the ice melts earlier each year. Similarly, coral reefs, which support a vast array of marine life, are dying off due to warmer ocean temperatures and increased acidity. The loss of these ecosystems not only threatens the species that directly rely on them but also has ripple effects throughout the food chain. Protecting biodiversity in the face of climate change requires both reducing greenhouse gas emissions and creating conservation strategies that help species adapt to new environmental conditions. Questions: 1. What are two examples of species affected by climate change mentioned in the passage? 2. How is climate change affecting polar bears? 3. Why are coral reefs important to marine life? 4. What are two actions mentioned in the passage that can help protect biodiversity? 5. Do you think enough is being done to address climate change? Explain your opinion 15 ENG 103: Functional English Chapter 3 Developing Listening Skills What is Listening? Listening is an active process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken or nonverbal messages. It involves more than just hearing; it requires attention, interpretation, and understanding. Effective listening enables individuals to grasp the intended message, engage with the speaker, and respond appropriately. Key Components of Listening: 1. Receiving: The physical act of hearing the sounds and words being spoken. 2. Understanding: Comprehending the message being communicated, including the context, emotions, and intentions behind the words. 3. Interpreting: Making sense of the message by considering the speaker's tone, body language, and any relevant background information. 4. Evaluating: Judging the content of the message, assessing its validity and relevance, and forming an opinion. 5. Responding: Providing feedback to the speaker, which can be verbal (comments or questions) or nonverbal (nodding or facial expressions). The Listening Process The listening process can be broken down into several stages, which work together to help individuals comprehend and respond to spoken messages. Here is an overview of the listening process: 1. Receiving: o This is the initial stage where the listener hears the sounds and words. It involves physical hearing and is influenced by the listener’s environment (e.g., background noise can hinder effective receiving). 2. Understanding: o In this stage, the listener makes sense of the message. This includes grasping the meaning of the words and phrases, identifying the main ideas, and recognizing any emotional tones. Understanding requires knowledge of the language, context, and subject matter. 3. Interpreting: o Interpretation goes beyond understanding. It involves considering the context and nuances of the message. The listener looks at the speaker's body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice to gain deeper insights into what is being communicated. 4. Evaluating: 16 ENG 103: Functional English oThis stage involves critically assessing the message. The listener thinks about the content, determining its credibility, relevance, and value. Questions may arise, such as: "Is this information accurate?" or "What are the implications of this message?" 5. Responding: o After processing the message, the listener provides feedback to the speaker. This can be done verbally (asking questions, giving comments) or nonverbally (nodding, smiling). Responding shows that the listener is engaged and helps to clarify any misunderstandings. 6. Remembering: o Effective listening often involves retaining the information for future use. This stage includes recalling key points from the conversation or message, which is essential for follow-up discussions or actions. Conclusion Listening is a vital communication skill that involves a complex process of receiving, understanding, interpreting, evaluating, and responding to messages. Effective listening enhances interpersonal communication, fosters relationships, and facilitates learning in both personal and professional contexts. By understanding the listening process, individuals can work to improve their listening skills, leading to better comprehension and engagement in conversations. Effective Listening What is Effective Listening? Effective listening is the ability to fully understand and engage with what someone is saying. It goes beyond merely hearing words; it involves grasping the meaning, remembering key details, and responding appropriately. Good listeners are attentive, ask questions, and can summarize the information to demonstrate comprehension. Key Parts of Effective Listening: 1. Active Engagement: Focus entirely on the speaker and minimize distractions. 2. Understanding: Comprehend the message being conveyed. 3. Retention: Remember essential points from conversations or lectures. 4. Feedback: Provide verbal and non-verbal responses to indicate you are listening. 5. Empathy: Recognize and understand the speaker's feelings and perspective. How Students Can Develop Effective Listening Skills Learning effective listening can be challenging for students due to language and cultural differences. Here are helpful strategies: 17 ENG 103: Functional English 1. Practice Active Listening: Encourage full attention to the speaker, maintaining eye contact and using affirmations like "yes" or "I understand." 2. Listen to Different Accents: Expose students to various English accents through movies, podcasts, or audio recordings to help them adapt to different speech patterns. 3. Use Contextual Clues: Teach students to look for visual aids and gestures that provide additional information to support their understanding. 4. Build Vocabulary: Encourage reading and learning new words to enhance comprehension of spoken language. 5. Summarize What They Hear: After listening, have students summarize key points to reinforce understanding. 6. Take Notes: Teach effective note-taking techniques to help remember important information. 7. Focus on Main Ideas and Details: Encourage listening for both overarching themes and specific details, followed by questions to check understanding. 8. Participate in Group Discussions: Engage in discussions that allow practice in a supportive environment. 9. Watch English Media: Suggest movies, TV shows, or YouTube videos to expose students to everyday language. 10. Practice Listening Exercises: Use resources like quizzes or fill-in-the-blank exercises to improve skills. 11. Practice Paraphrasing: Encourage students to restate what they hear to ensure understanding. 12. Create a Comfortable Environment: Foster a classroom atmosphere where students feel free to ask questions for clarification. 13. Reflect on Progress: Provide constructive feedback on their listening skills and promote self-reflection. 14. Join Language Exchange Programs: Encourage participation in programs with native speakers for real-life practice. Conclusion Improving effective listening skills is essential for new students, significantly impacting their ability to communicate and succeed academically. By applying these strategies, students can enhance their comprehension, build confidence in using English, and improve interactions in various contexts. Barriers to Effective Listening Recognizing barriers to effective listening is crucial for improvement. Here are some common obstacles: 1. Distractions: o Environmental: Background noise can hinder focus. o Internal: Personal thoughts or worries can divert attention. 2. Prejudice and Bias: o Stereotyping: Preconceived notions about the speaker can affect perception. o Personal Bias: Beliefs may lead to misinterpretation of information. 18 ENG 103: Functional English 3. Lack of Interest: o Uninteresting topics can cause disengagement. 4. Emotional Barriers: o Stress or Anxiety: High levels can impede attentive listening. o Strong Emotions: Feelings like anger or sadness can distract from the message. 5. Assumptions and Jumping to Conclusions: o Listeners may assume they know what the speaker will say, leading to misunderstandings. 6. Language Barriers: o Differences in language proficiency or jargon can result in confusion, especially for ESL learners. 7. Physical Barriers: o Hearing Impairments: Limitations can affect listening. o Distance: Being far from the speaker can make comprehension difficult. 8. Cultural Differences: o Varied cultural backgrounds can influence communication styles and understanding. 9. Lack of Feedback: o Insufficient engagement cues can lead to uncertainty about whether the message is being received. 10. Multi-tasking: o Attempting to listen while performing other tasks significantly diminishes listening quality. Conclusion Identifying and addressing barriers to effective listening is the first step in overcoming them. By developing awareness and actively working to improve these aspects, individuals can enhance their listening skills and foster better communication and relationships in both personal and professional settings. Activity: "Listening and Responding" Materials Needed: A selection of audio clips (e.g., short stories, news reports, TED Talks, or podcasts) Worksheets with specific questions related to the audio clips Whiteboard and markers for group discussion A timer Duration: Approximately 60 minutes Steps for the Activity: 19 ENG 103: Functional English 1. Warm-Up Discussion (10 minutes): o Begin the class with a discussion about the importance of effective listening. Ask students to share their experiences with listening in different contexts (e.g., in conversations, lectures, or media). o Introduce key vocabulary related to the listening clips they will hear. Provide definitions and examples to ensure understanding. 2. Listening Practice (30 minutes): o Select Audio Clips: Choose 2-3 short audio clips that are relevant to students' interests or the topics you are currently studying. Each clip should be around 3-5 minutes long. o First Listening: Play the first audio clip and instruct students to listen for the main idea. Encourage them to jot down any key points or interesting facts they hear. o Second Listening: Play the same clip again, but this time provide students with a worksheet that contains specific questions related to the content (e.g., "What is the main idea?" or "What examples are given?"). o Group Discussion: After the second listening, divide students into small groups. Have them discuss their answers to the questions on the worksheet and share their notes with each other. 3. Class Review (10 minutes): o Bring the class back together and discuss the audio clip as a whole. Ask each group to share one main point or interesting detail they discussed. Write these on the board to create a summary of the listening exercise. o Clarify any misunderstandings and emphasize the importance of listening for both details and the main idea. 4. Follow-Up Activity (10 minutes): o Listening for Specific Information: Play a new audio clip (or the same clip for further practice). This time, ask students to listen for specific information such as dates, names, or statistics. o Note-taking: Encourage students to take notes while listening. After the clip, they can compare their notes with a partner to see what they each captured. 5. Reflection and Feedback (5 minutes): o Conclude the activity by asking students to reflect on their listening experience. What strategies worked well? What challenges did they face? 20 ENG 103: Functional English o Encourage students to set goals for improving their listening skills based on this exercise. Assessment: Monitor group discussions to assess participation and understanding. Review the worksheets and notes to gauge comprehension of the audio material. Provide constructive feedback based on students’ reflections and discussions. Tips for Success: Select audio clips that match the students' language level and interests to keep them engaged. Encourage active listening by asking students to turn off distractions (like phones or laptops) during the exercise. Remind students that it is okay to ask for clarification or to replay the audio if needed. Outcomes: This listening exercise promotes effective listening skills through active engagement, discussion, and reflection. By practicing with varied audio materials and collaborating with peers, students can enhance their ability to listen critically and understand spoken content more effectively. 21 ENG 103: Functional English Chapter 4 Speaking Skills What is Speaking? Speaking is the act of expressing thoughts, ideas, or feelings through verbal communication. It involves using spoken language for conversations, presentations, and discussions. Effective speaking encompasses not just word choice, but also tone, clarity, pace, and body language. Key Components of Speaking: 1. Clarity: Expressing ideas in a clear, understandable manner. 2. Fluency: Speaking smoothly without unnecessary pauses or hesitations. 3. Pronunciation: Correctly producing sounds and words to ensure understanding. 4. Vocabulary: Using a range of appropriate words to convey meaning effectively. 5. Confidence: Having self-assurance in one’s ability to communicate effectively. How to Develop Speaking Skills Improving speaking skills is an ongoing process that requires practice, feedback, and active engagement. Here are some effective strategies: 1. Practice Regularly: Engage in conversations with friends or language partners to build fluency and confidence. 2. Expand Vocabulary: Read widely to learn new words, and use a thesaurus to find synonyms for precise expression. 3. Listen and Imitate: Listen to native speakers through podcasts or videos, paying attention to pronunciation and intonation to improve your speaking style. 4. Join Speaking Clubs: Participate in groups like debate clubs for practice and constructive feedback. 5. Record Yourself: Record your speaking and listen for areas of improvement in pronunciation, pacing, and clarity. 6. Engage in Role-Playing: Practice real-life situations, such as job interviews or casual conversations, through role-playing activities. 7. Use Visual Aids: In presentations, use slides, charts, or images to enhance engagement and clarity. 8. Work on Body Language: Use appropriate gestures, maintain eye contact, and adopt a confident posture to strengthen your message. 9. Prepare and Organize: Take time to outline your thoughts before speaking, ensuring a logical flow of ideas. 10. Seek Feedback: After speaking, ask peers or instructors for constructive criticism to identify areas for improvement. 11. Manage Anxiety: Use relaxation techniques like deep breathing to reduce anxiety before speaking; remember that nervousness is common. 22 ENG 103: Functional English 12. Engage in Discussions: Participate in forums or online discussions to practice articulating your thoughts in real-time. 13. Set Specific Goals: Identify areas you want to improve (e.g., pronunciation, fluency) and establish measurable goals. Conclusion Developing speaking skills requires time, practice, and persistence. By actively engaging in various speaking activities and applying these strategies, individuals can enhance their communication abilities, build confidence, and express themselves more clearly in both personal and professional contexts Activity: "Speak Up! Topic Carousel" Materials Needed: A list of diverse topics (e.g., technology, travel, health, education, hobbies) Index cards or slips of paper with topics written on them A timer A whiteboard or flip chart for feedback Duration: Approximately 60-75 minutes Steps for the Activity: 1. Preparation (10 minutes): o Before the class, prepare a list of engaging topics suitable for the students’ language level. Examples include: ▪ "The impact of social media on society" ▪ "A memorable travel experience" ▪ "The importance of physical fitness" ▪ "Your favourite book or movie" ▪ "How technology has changed education" o Write each topic on an index card or slip of paper and place them in a container. 23 ENG 103: Functional English 2. Warm-Up Discussion (5 minutes): o Begin with a brief discussion about the importance of speaking skills in various contexts (e.g., academic, professional, social). Encourage students to share their experiences with public speaking or conversation. 3. Activity Instructions (5 minutes): o Explain the "Topic Carousel" activity. Students will rotate through different speaking stations, where they will pick a topic and speak for a designated amount of time. o Each student will have 2 minutes to speak on each topic, and they should focus on organizing their thoughts and expressing their ideas clearly. 4. Speaking Stations (30-40 minutes): o Set Up Stations: Arrange the classroom so that students can easily move between speaking stations. Each station should have a list of topics or the index cards. o Divide Students into Groups: Depending on class size, divide students into small groups (3-5 students per group). o Start the Carousel: Each group will start at a different station. When the timer starts, the first student will randomly pick a topic card from the station and speak about it for 2 minutes. o After 2 minutes, the timer goes off, and students rotate to the next station. The next student picks a new topic and speaks for 2 minutes. o Continue the rotation until all students have had a chance to speak at each station. 5. Group Reflection and Feedback (10-15 minutes): o After the carousel, gather the class together for a group discussion. Ask students how they felt during the exercise. What topics did they enjoy? What challenges did they face? o Encourage students to give each other positive feedback and constructive suggestions based on their observations. Use a whiteboard to jot down key points or improvements. 6. Final Wrap-Up (5 minutes): o Conclude the activity by emphasizing the importance of practice and confidence in developing speaking skills. Encourage students to continue practicing speaking outside the classroom, perhaps by joining clubs or engaging in conversations with friends. Assessment: 24 ENG 103: Functional English Monitor students during the carousel to assess their speaking skills, such as clarity, fluency, and organization of thoughts. Collect feedback from students about their experiences and any goals they have for improving their speaking skills in the future. Tips for Success: Ensure that the topics are relatable and engaging for the students. Provide a supportive environment where students feel comfortable expressing their ideas without fear of judgment. Encourage active listening during group reflections, as this reinforces the importance of being attentive to others while they speak. Outcome: The "Speak Up! Topic Carousel" activity provides an interactive and dynamic way for students to practice their speaking skills. By rotating through various topics and engaging in discussions, students can improve their fluency, clarity, and confidence in expressing their thoughts 25 ENG 103: Functional English Chapter 5 Learning Pronunciation: Organs of Speech Language is made up of many systems - of sounds, words, meanings, etc. Spoken language consists of sounds and patterns of sounds just as written language consists of letters of the alphabet which are combined to form words. When learning a foreign language, we need to be familiar with the sounds of the language and how those sounds are combined to form words. Learning a foreign language involves learning many things about the target language - such as its sounds (many of which will be different from your mother tongue) and words and how to use them. The study of human speech sounds is known as phonetics - how sounds are produced, transmitted, and heard. It is concerned with all speech sounds and not with those of one particular language, and each language has a specific number of sounds. Phonology, on the other hand, is the broader study of major speech sounds and their organization in a particular language: each language has its own way of organizing sounds. Phoneticians use the technical word phoneme for 'sound'. A language learner needs to be familiar with three areas - the way sounds are made or produced by the vocal organs i.e. their articulation, the physical properties of sounds as they are carried from the mouth to the ear i.e. their transmission and the way the ears, and the brain receive and respond to sounds i.e. their reception. THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 26 ENG 103: Functional English Some familiarity with the articulators helps understand their role in the production of speech. (1) Alveolar Ridge: at the back of the upper teeth is a row of fine, crinkled hard palate which can be felt by running the tip of the tongue against it. Sounds made with the tongue touching it are called alveolar. e.g./t/,/d/. (ii) Hard palate: the hard but smooth 'roof' of the mouth can be felt by moving the tip of the tongue against it. (iii) Jaws: although not true articulators as they cannot themselves make contact with other articulators, their movements nevertheless plays a crucial role in the production of sounds. The lower jaw is certainly moved a lot when speaking and when vowel sounds are produced. (iv) Lips: play an important role in the production of speech sounds. They can be pressed together as when we produce the sounds/b/,/p/(bilabial), brought into contact with the teeth to produce sounds like/f/,/v/(labio-dental) spread as in the sounds/i:/,/3:/, rounded as in/u:/,/:/. (v) Nasal Cavity: It is the empty space behind the nose through which air passes when we breathe. It is not an articulator yet it is involved in the production of certain sounds. Sounds that are produced through this cavity are called nasal sounds. e.g./n/. (vi) Soft palate / Velum: is the area between the hard palate and the uvula and it can be reached by the tongue. When we produce the /k/, /g/ sounds the tongue is at the lower side of the soft palate or velum and they are called velar sounds. (vii) The Teeth: we have two sets of teeth: upper and lower. The tongue is in contact with the upper teeth for many speech sounds and these are called dental. e.g./0/,/ /. (viii) The Tongue: is an important articulator that is involved in the production of many speech sounds. It can be moved into many different positions and shapes and the different parts of the tongue are usually referred to as tip, front, back, and root. (ix) Vocal Cords / Folds: are the thin folds of muscle stretched over the windpipe (which you cannot see as they are inside the vocal tract) that can be felt if you put your finger in the little dip between the two collar bones in the front of your neck and say ahahahahah; you will feel the vibration of the cords. The movement and position of the vocal cords help to produce a complex range of sounds such as/,/p/,/f/,/s/. Activity: write the names of the organs of speech in the diagram given below. 27 ENG 103: Functional English Pronunciation: Learning Phonetic Keys A. Phonetic symbols for English This is the standard set of phonemic symbols for English Consonants Vowels p pen, copy, happen ɪ kit, bid, hymn, minute b back, baby, job e dress, bed, head, many t tea, tight, button æ trap, bad d day, ladder, odd ɒ lot, odd, wash k key, clock, school ʌ strut, mud, love, blood g get, giggle, ghost ʊ foot, good, put tʃ church, match, nature iː fleece, sea, machine dʒ judge, age, soldier eɪ face, day, break f fat, coffee, rough, photo aɪ price, high, try v view, heavy, move ɔɪ choice, boy θ thing, author, path uː goose, two, blue, group ð this, other, smooth əʊ goat, show, no 28 ENG 103: Functional English s soon, cease, sister aʊ mouth, now z zero, music, roses, buzz ɪə near, here, weary ʃ ship, sure, national eə square. fair, various ʒ pleasure, vision ɑː start, father h hot, whole, ahead ɔː thought, law, north, war m more, hammer, sum ʊə poor, jury, cure n nice, know, funny, sun ɜː nurse, stir, learn, refer ŋ ring, anger, thanks, sung ə about, common, standard l light, valley, feel i happy, radiate. glorious r right, wrong, sorry, arrange u thank you, influence, situation j yet, use, beauty, few n̩ suddenly, cotton w wet, one, when, queen l̩ middle, metal (glottal stop) ˈ (stress mark) ʔ department, football B. Stress In English, the symbol' is used before a stressed syllable, the part of the word which is spoken with greater force. midnight/' midnait / about /ə'baut/ exercise/'eksəsaız / belonging / bɪˈlɔŋɪŋ. Here the syllables mid, bout, ex and long 29 ENG 103: Functional English are stressed. It is important to get the stress on the right part of the word. Stressing a word incorrectly can make it difficult to understand. Now look at these two sentences We want to protest/prǝ'test/against experiments on live animals. We want to make a protest/'prǝutest/against experiments on live animals. Protest as a verb is stressed on the second syllable. As a noun, it is stressed on the first syllable. There are a number of words like this, e.g. conflict, contrast, export, import, increase, insult, produce, progress, protest, record, suspect, transfer, transport. Sometimes a change of stress means a change of vowel sound. Verbs: produce/pra'dju:s/, progress/prǝ'gres/, record/rı'kɔ:d/ Nouns: produce/'prodju:s/, progress/'praogres/, record/'rekɔ:d/ We also use stress to show which are the important words in a sentence. 'Claire's got a 'lovely 'flat. She 'bought it last 'year. It is 'right in the 'centre of 'town. Here the important words are Claire, lovely, flat and so on. We do not usually stress 'grammatical words' like a, she, the, and of. C. Intonation The voice usually falls or rises on the most important words in the sentence. This word is usually at or near the end of the sentence. Claire's got a lovely flat Here the voice falls when saying flat, which is the key word. The symbol is used for a falling intonation and for a rising intonation. Everything is more or less ready. (a statement) Everything is more or less ready? (a question) The voice usually goes down in a statement and up in a yes/no question. In general, a fall means that what we say is complete. A rise means that what we say is incomplete, or it needs an answer. The voice often rises in the first part of a sentence and falls at the end. Example: If you do not mind, I ought to be going. 30 ENG 103: Functional English D. Voicing Sounds can be voiced or voiceless. Voiced sounds are like those you make when you sing—all the vowels are voiced, and some of the consonants are too. Voiceless sounds are like those you make when you whisper. Some of the consonants are voiceless. Compare these words: VOICED VOICELESS /b/ bill /p/ pill /d/ down /t/ town /g/ gold /k/ cold /z/ prize /s/ price The voiceless sounds are /p/, /t/, /k/, and /s/. The "s" ending We sometimes add the ending s or es to words. For example, we can do this to form the plural or the possessive of a noun. Examples: Some chairs The bushes Mark's car The woman's name We can also add s or es to a verb. Examples: It looks nice and sunny. Tom watches football on Saturday afternoons. The pronunciation of s/es depends on the sound that comes before it. The ending is pronounced /s/ after a voiceless sound, /z/ after a voiced sound, and /ɪz/ after a sibilant sound. The sibilant sounds are /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ʧ/, and /ʤ/. Examples: Voiceless: shops /ps/, gets /ts/, takes /ks/ Voiced: jobs /bz/, hides /dz/, bags /gz/ Sibilant: buses /sɪz/, loses /luz/, crashes /ʃɪz/ The "ed" ending 31 ENG 103: Functional English We add ed or d to a regular verb to form the past tense or past participle. Examples: We all walked home. They've closed the gates. The pronunciation of ed depends on the sound that comes before it. The ending is pronounced /t/ after a voiceless sound, /d/ after a voiced sound, and /ɪd/ after /t/ or /d/. Examples: Voiceless: hoped /pt/, worked /kt/, increased /st/ Voiced: robbed /bd/, begged /gd/, raised /zd/ /t/ or /d/: wanted /tɪd/, landed /dɪd/ 32 ENG 103: Functional English Chapter 6 Communication Skills What is Communication? Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, or feelings between individuals or groups through spoken, written, or nonverbal means. It is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and is essential for building relationships, facilitating collaboration, and achieving common goals. Effective communication involves not only the transmission of messages but also the ability to listen, understand, and respond appropriately. Two Main Types of Communication Based on style and purpose, communication can be broadly categorized into two main types: formal communication and informal communication. Formal Communication Definition: Formal communication is a structured, official form of communication that follows predefined rules, procedures, and channels within an organization or system. It is often documented and used for official purposes, ensuring that information is conveyed in a clear and professional manner. Formal communication typically flows in specific directions, such as upward (from employees to management), downward (from management to employees), horizontal (between peers or departments), and diagonal (between different levels and departments). Characteristics: Follows established protocols or hierarchies. Often documented and recorded for future reference. 33 ENG 103: Functional English Used for official and business-related purposes. Examples include reports, memos, official emails, company policies, and business meetings. Informal Communication Definition: Informal communication refers to casual and spontaneous exchanges of information that occur outside official channels. It is more relaxed, flexible, and personal compared to formal communication. Informal communication happens in social settings or during casual interactions, and it can include verbal, written, or non-verbal exchanges. Characteristics: Does not follow a structured or official format. Often spontaneous and occurs naturally. Used in personal or social contexts, often to build relationships or share information quickly. Examples include casual conversations, social media messages, and small talk among colleagues. Key Differences: Formality: Formal communication follows rules and structures, while informal communication is more spontaneous and personal. Purpose: Formal communication is used for official business, while informal communication fosters relationships and helps share information quickly. Documentation: Formal communication is often documented, whereas informal communication is typically not recorded. Types of Communication Based on Communication Channels Communication can be divided into two main types based on how it is delivered: verbal communication and non- verbal communication. Both play important roles in how we express and understand messages in everyday life. 1. Verbal Communication 34 ENG 103: Functional English Definition: Verbal communication involves using words, either spoken or written, to share information. It is one of the most common ways we communicate and can be formal or informal, depending on the situation. A. Oral Communication: Oral communication involves conveying messages through spoken words, either face-to-face or over a distance using technology. It is a key way to interact, allowing for immediate feedback and dynamic exchanges. It can be formal (e.g., presentations) or informal (e.g., casual conversations). 1. Face-to-Face Oral Communication Definition: Face-to-face oral communication happens in person, where both verbal and non-verbal cues (e.g., body language, facial expressions) play a role in delivering the message. Advantages: Immediate Feedback: Instant verbal and non-verbal responses. Non-Verbal Cues: Gestures and expressions enhance understanding. Relationship Building: Promotes trust and connection. Challenges: Location Dependency: Requires both people to be in the same place. Time Constraints: Needs to be scheduled, especially in formal settings. Examples: Office conversations, interviews, classroom discussions. 2. Distance Oral Communication Definition: Distance oral communication occurs via technology (e.g., phone calls, video conferencing), allowing people to communicate without being in the same location. Forms: Phone Calls: Direct voice interaction without visual cues. 35 ENG 103: Functional English Video Calls: Combines voice with visual feedback via platforms like Zoom. Voice Messages: Pre-recorded messages sent and listened to asynchronously. Advantages: Overcomes Distance: Enables communication across locations. Convenience: Eliminates the need for travel and saves time. Challenges: Lack of Non-Verbal Cues: Harder to interpret emotions without visual feedback. Technical Issues: Dependent on technology and connectivity. Examples: Remote team meetings, customer service calls, sending voice messages. Comparison of Face-to-Face and Distance Communication Aspect Face-to-Face Distance Presence Same location required. Can happen from anywhere. Non-Verbal Cues Visible (gestures, expressions). Limited or absent (except video calls). Feedback Immediate, expressive. Immediate but less visual feedback. Flexibility Dependent on physical availability. Flexible, requires technology. Technology No technology is needed. Dependent on phones, internet, etc. B. Written Communication: Written communication involves sending messages through written words, whether it is an email, letter, or report. It is often used in formal situations because it provides a record of the conversation. Examples: Emails and Letters: Written messages exchanged between people. Reports and Memos: Documents that communicate detailed information. Text Messages: Short written conversations. 2. Non-Verbal Communication Definition: Non-verbal communication refers to the ways we communicate without using words. This includes things like body 36 ENG 103: Functional English language, facial expressions, eye contact, and gestures. Non-verbal cues often accompany what we say and can help or change how our message is understood. A. Body Language: Body language includes all the ways we use our body to communicate. For example, standing confidently or slouching can send different messages about how we feel. Examples: Gestures: Movements like waving or pointing. Posture: Sitting or standing in a certain way. Facial Expressions: Smiling or frowning. B. Eye Contact: Eye contact involves looking at someone when you are speaking or listening. It shows attention, confidence, or engagement, and varies based on culture. Examples: Direct Eye Contact: Showing that you are interested or confident. Avoiding Eye Contact: Can show discomfort or lack of confidence. C. Gestures: Gestures are hand or body movements that add meaning to what you are saying. For example, nodding means "yes," and a thumbs-up is a common way to show approval. Examples: Nodding: Showing agreement. Thumbs-Up: Indicating something is good. D. Use of Space (Proxemics): How close or far you stand from someone during communication can send a message. For example, standing close to a friend may show comfort, while standing too close to a stranger might make them uncomfortable. Examples: 37 ENG 103: Functional English Personal Space: The distance you keep when talking to others. Social Distance: Keeping a formal distance in business settings. E. Touch (Haptics): Touch can communicate many things, like affection, support, or even authority. A handshake, for example, is a common form of non-verbal communication. Examples: Handshake: A greeting or agreement. Hug: Showing affection or comfort. F. Voice Cues (Paralinguistics): Paralinguistics refers to how you say something rather than the words themselves. Your tone, pitch, and volume can change the meaning of your words. Examples: Tone of Voice: A happy tone shows enthusiasm, while a flat tone may show boredom. Volume: Speaking loudly might show anger, while speaking softly might show calmness. G. Appearance: How you dress and present yourself also sends messages. For example, dressing neatly for a job interview communicates professionalism. Examples: Dressing Formally: Wearing a suit for a business meeting. Grooming: Clean and tidy appearance shows respect and care. Conclusion Both verbal and non-verbal communication are important for sharing information and interacting with others. Verbal communication uses words, while non-verbal communication includes things like gestures, facial expressions, and body language. Together, they help us express ourselves clearly and understand others better. 38 ENG 103: Functional English Chapter 7 The Seven C's of Effective Communication The Seven C's of Effective Communication is a framework that outlines key principles to ensure clarity and effectiveness in communication, particularly in professional settings. By following these principles, individuals can enhance their ability to convey messages clearly and meaningfully. Here is a detailed discussion of each of the Seven C's: 1. Clarity Definition: Clarity means being clear about what you want to say. It involves using straightforward language and ensuring your message is easily understood by the audience. Use Simple Language: Avoid jargon or technical terms unless your audience is familiar with them. Instead, opt for plain language that everyone can grasp. Be Specific: Clearly define your main points. For example, instead of saying, "We need to improve productivity," specify how productivity can be improved, such as, "We should implement weekly progress meetings to track goals." Visual Aids: Use diagrams, charts, or images to enhance understanding and convey complex ideas simply. 2. Conciseness Definition: Conciseness refers to expressing your message in as few words as necessary while still retaining the essential meaning. It helps avoid unnecessary information that can distract or confuse the audience. Stick to the Point: Focus on your main ideas and eliminate filler words or repetitive statements. For instance, instead of saying, "In my opinion, I think that we should consider the proposal," simply say, "I believe we should consider the proposal." Short Sentences: Use brief sentences to improve readability and maintain the audience’s attention. Avoid Redundancy: Remove unnecessary phrases that repeat the same information. 3. Correctness Definition: Correctness means using accurate information and proper language in your communication. This includes grammar, punctuation, and spelling, as well as ensuring the factual accuracy of the content. Fact-Check: Ensure that any data, statistics, or claims you make are accurate and well-researched. 39 ENG 103: Functional English Proofreading: Always proofread your written communication to catch grammatical errors or typos that could undermine your credibility. Appropriate Tone: Use a tone that is suitable for your audience and context. For instance, a formal tone may be required for business communications, while a more casual tone may be appropriate for internal team discussions. 4. Completeness Definition: Completeness involves providing all necessary information your audience needs to understand your message and take appropriate action. Answer Questions: Anticipate and address any questions the audience might have. For example, if you are presenting a project proposal, include budget details and timelines. Provide Context: Give background information to help the audience understand the topic better. Call to Action: If applicable, include a clear call to action, such as what you expect the audience to do after receiving your message. 5. Consideration Definition: Consideration refers to the ability to understand and address the audience’s needs, perspectives, and feelings. It is about being empathetic and tailoring your message to the audience. Empathy: Put yourself in your audience's shoes. Consider their interests, knowledge level, and any potential concerns they may have about the topic. Cultural Sensitivity: Be aware of cultural differences that may affect how your message is received. Tailor your communication style accordingly. Use Inclusive Language: Avoid language that could be perceived as biased or discriminatory, and strive to make everyone feel included. 6. Courtesy Definition: Courtesy means being polite, respectful, and considerate in your communication. It fosters positive interactions and enhances relationships. Polite Language: Use courteous expressions like "please," "thank you," and "I appreciate your time." This helps create a positive atmosphere. Respectful Tone: Even when disagreeing, maintain a respectful tone and acknowledge the other person's point of view. Listen Actively: Show respect for others' opinions by listening attentively and responding thoughtfully. 40 ENG 103: Functional English 7. Completeness Definition: Completeness involves providing all the information necessary for your audience to fully understand your message. Provide Details: Make sure to include all relevant facts and figures that support your message. Contextual Information: Give background information that helps the audience understand the significance of your points. Summarize Key Points: At the end of your communication, summarize the main points to reinforce understanding. Conclusion The Seven C's of Effective Communication—Clarity, Conciseness, Correctness, Completeness, Consideration, Courtesy, and Completeness—serve as essential principles to enhance communication effectiveness. By applying these principles, individuals can ensure their messages are clear, engaging, and understood, leading to better interactions in both personal and professional contexts 41 ENG 103: Functional English Chapter 8 Formal Communication Workplace Communication or Formal Communication Definition: Formal communication refers to structured and official forms of communication that follow established protocols, rules, or hierarchies within an organization or context. It is typically used in professional settings and is characterized by a clear and precise exchange of information. Characteristics: Structured: It follows a specific format or set of guidelines, often outlined in organizational policies. Official: Typically used for business, academic, or official purposes. Written or Verbal: It can occur in written forms (emails, reports, memos) or verbal forms (meetings, presentations). Documented: Often involves documentation for record-keeping or accountability. Examples: Business Meetings: Discussions that follow an agenda and involve formal presentations. Emails and Reports: Written communications that convey specific information or updates. Policies and Procedures: Official documents that outline rules and expectations within an organization. Advantages: Provides clarity and accountability. Facilitates clear understanding of roles, responsibilities, and expectations. Helps maintain professionalism and decorum in communication. Formal communication refers to the structured, official, and documented exchange of information that follows predefined rules and protocols, typically within an organization. There are several types of formal communication, each serving a distinct purpose and following a specific flow. These types are often categorized based on the direction in which the information flows within an organization. 1. Upward Communication 42 ENG 103: Functional English Definition: Upward communication is the flow of information from subordinates to superiors. It allows employees to provide feedback, report progress, or raise concerns to higher management. Purpose: To provide feedback or suggestions. To report on performance, challenges, or work-related issues. To seek approval or clarification from supervisors or management. Examples: Employee performance reports. Feedback surveys from employees to management. A subordinate requesting additional resources from their manager. Advantages: Encourages employee participation in decision-making. Provides management with insights into issues at lower levels. Helps identify areas for improvement in processes and operations. 2. Downward Communication Definition: Downward communication flows from higher-level management to subordinates. It typically involves instructions, guidelines, policies, or feedback provided by superiors to lower-level employees. Purpose: To communicate company policies and procedures. To give instructions or assign tasks. To provide feedback on employee performance. Examples: A manager giving instructions to a team on how to complete a project. 43 ENG 103: Functional English Announcements from the CEO regarding new policies or company objectives. Company memos and newsletters. Advantages: Ensures that employees are aligned with organizational goals. Provides clear expectations for tasks and responsibilities. Helps maintain order and structure within the organization. 3. Horizontal (Lateral) Communication Definition: Horizontal communication occurs between employees or departments at the same level of hierarchy within an organization. It is often used for coordination and collaboration across different departments. Purpose: To collaborate on projects across departments. To share information or resources between teams. To resolve issues or solve problems collectively. Examples: Communication between different department heads (e.g., marketing and finance) to coordinate on a project. Team members in the same department working together to plan a task. Cross-departmental meetings or project updates. Advantages: Promotes teamwork and collaboration. Helps resolve issues and solve problems more efficiently. Encourages the sharing of ideas and resources across departments. 4. Diagonal Communication 44 ENG 103: Functional English Definition: Diagonal communication is the exchange of information between employees at different levels of hierarchy who are not in direct reporting relationships. It cuts across departmental lines and can involve communication between employees and managers in different departments or divisions. Purpose: To facilitate faster communication and problem-solving across different levels. To promote collaboration between different departments and roles. To enable quicker decision-making by bypassing hierarchical barriers. Examples: An employee in the finance department communicating directly with a manager in the marketing department. A project team leader collaborating with executives from other departments. A cross-functional project where employees from different levels and departments work together. Advantages: Improves communication flow and breaks down silos. Increases efficiency by bypassing formal hierarchical channels. Encourages innovation and cross-functional collaboration. 5. External Communication Definition: External communication is the formal exchange of information between an organization and external entities, such as customers, suppliers, stakeholders, or regulatory bodies. This communication is crucial for maintaining relationships and ensuring transparency with external audiences. Purpose: To build and maintain relationships with customers, suppliers, and partners. To communicate the company’s brand, products, and services. To provide stakeholders with updates or reports. 45 ENG 103: Functional English Examples: Press releases and official statements to the public or media. Business proposals and contracts with suppliers or partners. Annual reports shared with shareholders or regulatory bodies. Advantages: Enhances the organization's image and credibility. Builds trust and transparency with external stakeholders. Helps maintain positive business relationships Oral Reports in Formal Communication Oral reports are structured presentations of information delivered verbally in formal settings like business meetings, academic conferences, or project briefings. They are prepared in advance, follow a clear structure (introduction, body, conclusion), and are used to present data, updates, or recommendations. Key Features: 1. Structure: Organized into clear sections—introduction, main content, and conclusion. 2. Preparation: Requires planning and often uses visual aids like slides or charts. 3. Clarity: Must be concise and formal, with clear language. 4. Purpose: To inform, update, or present findings for decision-making. 5. Audience: Tailored to a specific group, like colleagues, managers, or clients. 6. Interaction: Often followed by a Q&A for feedback and clarification. Types of Oral Reports: 1. Progress Reports: Provide updates on ongoing projects. 2. Research/Data Reports: Present findings from studies or analyses. 3. Financial Reports: Share financial performance and forecasts. 4. Technical Reports: Deliver specialized, technical information. Advantages: Immediate Feedback: Real-time questions and interaction. Engagement: Visuals and spoken delivery keep the audience engaged. 46 ENG 103: Functional English Decision-Making: Information is conveyed quickly for immediate decisions. Adaptability: Presenters can adjust based on audience reactions. Challenges: Time Limits: Must convey key information within a limited timeframe. Nervousness: Public speaking pressure can affect delivery. Clarity: Must avoid jargon or unclear language. No Permanent Record: Oral reports leave limited written documentation. Conclusion: Oral reports are an essential part of formal communication, allowing for direct interaction and quick dissemination of information. They require clear structure, strong presentation skills, and effective time management to ensure success. Communication in Job Interviews A job interview is a formal process through which the interviewer and interviewee exchange information. It is not just about answering questions—effective communication involves verbal responses, body language, listening skills, and overall presentation. The goal is for the interviewee to convey their qualifications, skills, and personality in a way that aligns with the needs of the employer, while the interviewer assesses the candidate's fit for the job and company culture. Tips and Skills for a Successful Job Interview Effective communication during a job interview is crucial for presenting yourself confidently and clearly. Here are essential tips and skills to enhance your communication: 1. Research the Company and Role Understand the company’s mission, values, and job specifics to tailor your responses and show genuine interest. 2. Prepare for Common Questions Anticipate questions like "Tell me about yourself" and "What are your strengths?" Practice structured responses for clarity and confidence. 3. Use the STAR Method For behavioural questions, structure your answers using the STAR method: o Situation: Describe the context. 47 ENG 103: Functional English o Task: Explain your responsibility. o Action: Detail the actions you took. o Result: Share the outcome and learnings. 4. Mind Your Body Language Maintain good posture, make eye contact, and smile. Use appropriate gestures to enhance your message without overdoing it. 5. Listen Actively Pay attention to the interviewer’s questions and take a moment to think before responding. This shows thoughtfulness and engagement. 6. Ask Insightful Questions Prepare 2-3 thoughtful questions for the interviewer to demonstrate interest and initiative. 7. Show Enthusiasm Convey genuine excitement about the role and the company through your tone and body language. Employers value enthusiasm. 8. Be Honest Speak truthfully about your skills and experiences. If you do not know something, it is okay to admit it; honesty builds trust. 9. Follow Up Send a thank-you email within 24 hours, expressing gratitude for the opportunity and reiterating your interest in the position. Conclusion By focusing on these communication tips and skills, you can effectively present yourself during a job interview, enhancing your chances of making a positive impression and securing the position. 48 ENG 103: Functional English Chapter 9 Informal Communication Definition: Informal communication is a casual and spontaneous form of communication that occurs outside of formal channels. It often happens in social settings and is characterized by a relaxed exchange of information, where personal relationships and interpersonal connections play a significant role. Characteristics: Casual: It is less structured and can occur spontaneously without a set agenda. Personal: It often involves personal relationships and informal interactions. Verbal or Nonverbal: It can be spoken (conversations, chats) or nonverbal (body language, facial expressions). Unrecorded: Typically not documented and may lack a formal record. Examples: Casual Conversations: Informal chats between colleagues during breaks or after work. Social Media Interactions: Casual exchanges of ideas, memes, or updates on platforms like Facebook, Twitter, or WhatsApp. Gossip and Rumours: Informal sharing of information, which can sometimes lead to misunderstandings. Advantages: Encourages open and honest dialogue. Fosters team bonding and camaraderie. Facilitates quick exchanges of information and feedback. Understanding the distinction between formal and informal communication is essential for effective interaction in various contexts. While formal communication is crucial for maintaining professionalism and clarity in organizational settings, informal communication plays a significant role in building relationships and fostering a positive workplace culture. Both types of communication complement each other and are important for successful interpersonal interactions. 49 ENG 103: Functional English Informal Debate and Panel Discussion Communicating During an Informal Debate and Panel Discussion Informal debates and panel discussions are dynamic formats that allow for the exchange of ideas, opinions, and perspectives on various topics. While these settings are less structured than formal debates or presentations, effective communication is still essential for conveying arguments and engaging with others. Here is how to communicate effectively during these types of discussions: 1. Understand the Format and Purpose Clarify Expectations: Know the purpose of the discussion, the format (e.g., roundtable, panel), and any specific rules or guidelines. Know Your Audience: Understand who will be participating and listening. This can help tailor your communication style and content. 2. Prepare Your Points Research the Topic: Familiarize yourself with the topic at hand and gather relevant information to support your arguments. Organize Your Thoughts: Identify the key points you want to make. Consider preparing a few strong arguments or examples to illustrate your position. 3. Use Clear and Concise Language Be Direct: Clearly articulate your points without excessive jargon or overly complex language. Simple, straightforward communication is more effective in informal settings. Stay Focused: Keep your comments relevant to the topic to maintain the flow of discussion. 4. Engage Actively Listen Attentively: Pay close attention to what others are saying. This not only helps you understand their points but also allows you to respond thoughtfully. Acknowledge Other Speakers: Show respect for different opinions by acknowledging others’ contributions, even if you disagree. For example, say, "I see your point, but I believe..." 5. Use Body Language Effectively Maintain Eye Contact: This shows engagement and confidence. It also helps build rapport with the audience and other participants. 50 ENG 103: Functional English Use Gestures: Natural hand movements can help emphasize your points and convey enthusiasm. Avoid crossing your arms, which can appear defensive. 6. Encourage Interaction Ask Questions: Prompt other participants to elaborate on their points. Questions can stimulate discussion and show that you value others’ opinions. Invite Counterarguments: Be open to differing viewpoints. Encouraging a healthy exchange of ideas enhances the discussion. 7. Stay Calm and Respectful Manage Emotions: In informal debates, it is easy to become passionate. However, stay calm and composed, even when discussing contentious issues. Use Respectful Language: Avoid personal attacks or derogatory remarks. Focus on the argument rather than the person. 8. Adapt to the Flow of Discussion

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