Early History of Psychology Chapter 1 PDF

EARLY HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: CHAPTER 1 THEORY OF HUMORISM: Created by Hippocrates Humour meaning temperament, believed the psychology of a person depended upon the balance of 4 liquids in the human body: - Black Bile (Melancholic, Independent, Pragmatic) - Blood (Cheerful, Charismatic, Opti...

EARLY HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY: CHAPTER 1 THEORY OF HUMORISM: Created by Hippocrates Humour meaning temperament, believed the psychology of a person depended upon the balance of 4 liquids in the human body: - Black Bile (Melancholic, Independent, Pragmatic) - Blood (Cheerful, Charismatic, Optimistic) - Yellow Bile (Angry, Aggressive, Jealous) - Phlegm (Sluggish, Lethargic, Sentimental) RENE DESCARTES: Argued for substance dualism: The belief that the mind and body are distinct entities that interact, with the body being material and the mind being immaterial. WILHEM WUNDT: Established psychology as a distinct discipline from Physiology and Philosophy, opened the first psychology laboratory. - Believed psychology should be studied like physics/chemistry (more scientific approach) - Psychology is the study of the consciousness, so focused on Introspection STRUCTURALISM VS. FUNCTIONALISM: STRUCTURALISM: Belief that the goal of psychology is to analyze basic elements of consciousness/ analyze how they are related. Pioneered by Wilhem Wundt FUNCTIONALISM: Belief that the goal of psychology is to analyze the function of the consciousness, not its structure. Pioneered by William James. Inspired by Darwin's Natural selection PSYCHOANALYTICAL: Pioneered by Sigmund Frued, Who developed treatment called PSYCHOANALYSIS - Trying to explain personality/motivation/disorders through focusing on unconscious behaviors(thoughts/memories below the surface of awareness that exert influence on one's actions) THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE Pioneered by John B Watson, who got his start studying non-human animals. - Watson believed good science relied on the ability to verify shit scientifically - Argued if psychology wants to be a real science, it needs to abandon study of consciousness and become the study of behavior(BEHAVIORISM), because that is something directly observable and measurable. - Big advocate for the thought that environment influences people's behaviors - Different at the time, many people believed genetics were what primarily influenced the behaviors of people.  - Watson believed behavior was a combination of both genes and environment What if all the things u think and feel are just byproducts of u being a living organism, and not the reason for your behavior BEHAVIORISM: - Scientific psychology should study observable behavior - Enhanced by BF SKINNER,discovered Operant Conditioning - Not that he's denying the existence of minds, just didn't think it was useful to study because it was kinda up in the air. THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE - Believed humans are greater than the sum of their parts, and that they have the freedom and potential for personal growth. - Man can never live as an objective, they can only live subjectively - Kinda have a distaste for scientific research, because things like human drive/growth are not exactly quantifiable subjects. THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: For PEOPLE WHO AGREE WITH THE SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF BEHAVIORISM, BUT WHO USE IT TO INFER THINGS ABOUT THE MIND AND CONSCIOUSNESS (Cognition) - THE DOMINANT PERSPECTIVE IN MODERN DAY PSYCHOLOGY THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: Focuses on how brain processes and other bodily functions regulate behavior. PRESENT DAY PSYCHOLOGY: SOCIOCULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY: Focuses on how social/cultural aspects of environment influence behavior(had not been studied in the past, was usually an american homogeneous demographic) DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: Focuses on human development across the lifespan, primarily concerned with childhood development. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY(CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY): Branch of psychology concerned with diagnosis/treatment of psychological problems/disorders CHAPTER 2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: procedure of using empirical evidence to establish facts 1) Identify the question of interest 2) Gather relevant information and formulate testable hypothesis 3) Design study that can test the hypothesis 4) Analyze the data/draw tentative conclusions 5) Report the finding and ask further questions Ignaz Semmelweis: Hungarian physician who worked in a hospital, so big it had 2 maternity wards. One staffed by midwives, one staffed by physicians. All other factors (diet, care, etc) was constant between the two. However, the clinic staffed by the physicians had a much higher fatality rate than the other ward. Tested many theories, however came to the hypothesis that the doctors working in the morning doing autopsies(which the midwives did not do) were carrying little pathogens to the women who they were later helping give birth to, and were transferring them to and killing the women. Dogmatism: A person's tendency to cling to their beliefs Empiricism: Belief that accurate knowledge can be gathered by observing the world People are COMPLEX, REACTIVE, and VARIABLE Everyday observations are INCONSISTENT and INCOMPLETE NAIVE REALISM: The belief we see the world precisely as it is INDUCTIVE STATEMENT: Argument where its improbable that the conclusion is false, given the premises are true(ex: swans are usually seen to be white = all swans are white)(false) Falsifiability: A hypothesis is falsifiable if its able to be disproved Deductive argument (deducing): Argument where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premise (ex: all men are mortal, socrates is a man, THEREFORE socrates is mortal) FACTS: observations seen in the everyday world HYPOTHESIS: something you test instead of proving THEORY: Something that we KNOW is true based off substantiated evidence/proved hypothesis LAW: detailed description (usually using math) of how/why something happens MEASUREMENTS: Dependent variable: The variable that is “caused” or “effected” Independent variable: Variable intended to affect the dependent variable Operational Definition: Description of the operation used to establish/measure a variable in an experiment (EX: if counting books, need to establish what constitutes as a book and stick with that definition throughout)(should have good construct validity; the operational definition is a good indicator of whats being measured, ie: using SMILES to test HAPPINESS) Construct validity usually in eye of the beholder, but a good detector should have POWER (ability to detect presence/magnitude of change) and RELIABILITY (detect the absence of change when there isn't one) (don't allow FALSE NEGATIVES/FALSE POSITIVES) Probability Distribution: A math equation that describes the probability of obtaining certain values of a variable. EQUATION: THE CENTRAL TENDENCY MODE: The value that occurs with the greatest frequency MEDIAN: Middle number in set of data ordered small to large MEAN: the average of all the variables, add all together then divide by number of variables To measure SPREAD or VARIABILITY(standard deviation/σ), calculate the deviation: subtract the mean of the variables from each variable. RESEARCH METHODS EX1: The Prefrontal Lobotomy. Believed to help with depression and epilepsy and shit. So popular the creator of the procedure was given the nobel prize. However the only barometer of success for this procedure was the objective testimonies of the doctors who were performing the procedure, who all said it worked. Actual subsequent studies on the procedure found it was completely unaffected. Didn't treat the part of the brain of the actual problem the lobotomy was being operated on for, just put the person in a vegetative state. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: Data collection tries not to interfere with how data arises in the real world (describes characteristics ) (EX: NATURAL OBSERVATION) CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH: Looks for the relationship between variables, uses descriptive research to obtain data on the variables (EX: between X and Y)(EX: correlation between father son height) POSITIVE CORRELATION: Taller father would have taller sons CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION (Could have a correlation between 2 things that are not actually related) These two together are called OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: Manipulates variables in a closed environment to isolate causes of a phenomena. Establishes the causal relationship between variables by eliminating factors other then the independent factor (Manipulate, Measure, Compare) NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION(goes under descriptive research): Recording behavior in real world setting without manipulating the situation (Jane Goodall)(Has high External Validity: the findings are applicable to real world settings) BEWARE OF ANECDOTES(short personal experience), ANECDOTES are NOT evidence. EVALUATING THE DATA: Reliability(consistency of measurements) Test retest reliability(test is readministered to ensure it produces consistent results) Interobserver reliability(two or more people using same test arrive at the same conclusion) Validity(extent to which a measure actually assess what it purports to measure) - EX: POLYGRAPH TESTS: does not actually test if someone is lying or not, tests heart rate WHY DOES DATA FLUCTUATE? - All possible variables cant be controlled(ex learning experience, genetics, nutrition) (this generates unsystematic variation (error)) (ERROR BARS: Displays confidence intervals, deviation, range of experiment) HAZARDS IN EXPERIMENT DESIGN: - Not using Random Assignment (randomly sorting subjects into experiment groups)(don't confuse with random sampling) - Confounding Variable (difference in experimental and control group that is not the independent variable, basically THIRD VARIABLE) present - Subjects not blinded to the condition they're in (subject is unaware of what group (experimental or control) they are in) - Subjects are using demand characteristics (cues participants pick up from a study that allows them to generate guesses that purposefully fulfill the hypothesis TYPE 1 ERROR: False Positive (thinks there is relationship, there is NOT) TYPE 2 ERROR: False Negative (thinks there is no relationship, there IS) RESEARCH ETHICS UNETHICAL RESEARCH CASES: - Little Albert: Study performed by watson, baby was conditioned to be afraid of an animal through the use of loud scary noise (noise played whenever was near animal) (Albert was never reconditioned to not be afraid, mother didn’t consent to experiment) - Monster Study: tested whether positive/negative feedback would affect language learning in children. 5 children with early signs of stutters given positive feedback, 5 others ridiculed and given negative feedback (didn't affect speech pathology but DID affect self esteem of children) - Milgram Experiment: Wanted to test the level of obedience to authority figures, subjects were told by scientist(actor) to give fake shocks to a subject (actor) without knowing they were actually painless. (negatively impacted psychological health of people who thought they hurt the subject) - Bystander Effect: Measured how long it would take students to act if they thought someone was having a crisis, found they were quicker to react when less people were around who they thought could do something (same problem as with last experiment, negatively impacted mental health) - Stanford Prison Experiment: split 10 college students into police and 10 into prisoners. Study had to be ended early because students began to internalize their roles, police ones were abusing their power and administering actual physical punishments and prisoners began to revolt (unethical because some permanent harm was caused due to the acts of violence) RESEARCH ETHICS BOARD; Committee of researchers at an institution that upholds the protection of human research participants by ensuring researchers abide by the TRI COUNCIL POLICY STATEMENT. They weigh the risks/benefits of an experiment as well as ensure volunteers give informed consent. - Methods may have to be revised to minimize risks (such as psychological/physical harm, mishandling of personal information) - Informed consent: volunteers need to consent to the experiment while knowing what they're participating in and the possible risks. Could be a problem because it could alter the results. - Deception: purposely misleading experiment participants to maintain integrity of experiment. Need to inform after experiment about the deception (EX: placebo experiments) - Anonymity and Confidentiality is crucial to maintain for subjects. WHY TO USE NON HUMAN ANIMALS IN EXPERIMENTS? - Humans are animals and share an evolutionary history with other species. - Control influence of learning/hereditary - More practical - Able to apply procedures that would be unethical with humans Ethical use of animal research governed by CCAC, enforce 3 R’s: - REPLACEMENT: Methods that would replace vertebrates with less sentient/pain perceiving animals like insects - REDUCTION: Lowering subject size (using less animals) - REFINEMENT: Modification to reduce pain and stress in animal subjects