BIO 203 Topics List Sixth Exam PDF

BIO 203 Topics List Sixth Exam ✓Types of bone -- long, flat, irregular ✓Compact bone, spongy bone - Compact Bone -- Exterior. Cortical. - Spongy Bone -- Interior. Trabecular or Cancellous \>✓Parts of long bone -- diaphysis, epiphysis, epiphyseal plates, endosteum, periosteum - Diaphysis...

BIO 203 Topics List Sixth Exam ✓Types of bone -- long, flat, irregular ✓Compact bone, spongy bone - Compact Bone -- Exterior. Cortical. - Spongy Bone -- Interior. Trabecular or Cancellous \>✓Parts of long bone -- diaphysis, epiphysis, epiphyseal plates, endosteum, periosteum - Diaphysis and Epiphysis. **E**pi is on **E**nds, **D**ia is **D**ead center - \>Epiphyseal/Growth Plates. At ends of bones, responsible for growth - \>Endo & periosteum **E**ndo is inside, **P**eri **P**rotects the **P**erimeter \>✓Nature of bone tissue, functions of the skeletal system - **Support:** Provides a framework for the body, holding organs in place and maintaining posture.  - **Movement:** Serves as attachment points for muscles, enabling movement through joint articulation.  - **Protection:** Encases vital organs like the brain (skull), heart (rib cage), and spinal cord (vertebral column).  - **Mineral storage:** Stores important minerals like calcium and phosphorus, which can be released into the bloodstream as needed.  - **Blood cell production:** Bone marrow within bones produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.  ✓Composition of bone - 40% inorganic component (hydroxyapatite), 25% water and 35% organic component (proteins) ✓Bone vs hyaline cartilage, similarities and differences - Similarities: Provide structure. Are connective tissues. - Differences: Bone highly vascular (**B**one **B**reathes/**B**lood), cart not. Cart flexible, bone not (**B**one **B**reaks). **B**one, good for **B**uilding, **C**art, good for **C**ushioning ✓Interstitial growth vs appositional growth - **Inter**sistial is **Inter**nal growth, **A**ppositional **A**dds to the exterior ✓Bone cells and their functions - Osteo**B**lasts **B**uild new bone - Osteo**Cl**asts **Cl**ean up old bone - \>Osteocytes Mature cells that maintain structure (Cyte manager?) ✓Bone remodeling - **Adjust bone architecture**: Bone remodeling helps the body adapt to changing mechanical needs.  - **Repair microdamage**: Bone remodeling helps to repair small cracks and other damage that occurs during normal activity.  - **Maintain calcium homeostasis**: Bone remodeling helps to maintain the balance of calcium in the body\'s plasma. \>✓Bone growth, epiphyseal plates (Might need to expand on this one) - Epiphyseal plates cause bones to grow. They ossify (turn to bone) at adulthood, thus stop growth. ✓Bone formation, intramembranous & endochondral - Intramembranous Ossification -- Bones formed from Meneschymal connective tissue. Skulls flat bones, as well as clavicles and mandible. - Endochondral Ossification -- Converstion of Hyaline cart to bone. Long bones, short bones. Is seen in Epiphyseal plate's bone growth ✓Calcium homeostasis -- organs and hormones involved - Organs: Bones -- PTH stimulates Clasts, Calcitonin stimulates Blasts. Kidneys -- PTH increases Ca reabsorption and stimulates secretion of D3. Intestines -- Ca absorption stimulated by D3. Parathyroid -- releases PTH due to low Ca. Thyroid -- releases Calcitonin due to high Ca - Hormones: PTH -- Increases Ca reabsorption in kidneys, stimulates bone reabsorption. D3 -- Increases Ca absorption in intestines. Calcitonin -- Decreases Ca absorption in intestines, decreases bone reabsorption. Antagonistic to PTH and D3 \>✓Bone movements -- dorsiflexion & plantar flexion, flexion & extension. Supination & pronation, eversion & inversion, rotation, circamduction, protraction & retraction, adduction & abduction, opposition, elevation & depression, hyperextension - **Dorsiflexion & Plantar Flexion:** These movements relate to the ankle joint, where dorsiflexion means lifting the toes towards the shin (like when you point your toes up), and plantar flexion means pointing the toes downwards (like when standing on your tiptoes).  - **Flexion & Extension:** Flexion refers to bending a joint, decreasing the angle between bones, while extension is straightening a joint, increasing the angle between bones.  - **Supination & Pronation:** Primarily related to the forearm, supination means rotating the palm facing upwards, while pronation means rotating the palm facing downwards.  - **Eversion & Inversion:** These movements are specific to the foot, where eversion means turning the sole of the foot outwards, and inversion means turning the sole inwards.  - **Rotation:** A circular movement around a fixed axis, like turning your head side to side.  - **Circumduction:** A circular motion where one end of a limb stays relatively fixed while the other end describes a circle, like swinging your arm in a full circle.  - **Protraction & Retraction:** Protraction means moving a body part forward, while retraction means pulling it back.  - **Adduction & Abduction:** Adduction means moving a limb towards the midline of the body, while abduction means moving it away from the midline.  - **Opposition:** A specific movement of the thumb where it is moved to touch the tips of other fingers.  - **Elevation & Depression:** Elevation means moving a body part upwards, while depression means moving it downwards.  - **Hyperextension:** Extending a joint beyond its normal range of motion, like bending your knee too far back.  \-\-\-\--JOINTS\-\-\-\-- ✓Structural classification of joints -- fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial - Fibrous -- Dense Connective tissue. Little to no movement. Ex Skull Sutures - Cartilaginous -- Cartilage. Some movement, limited directions. Ex Rib-Sternum joints - Synovial -- Capsule filled with fluid. Free movement. Ex Shoulders, hip ✓Movement classification of joints -- synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis - Synarthrosis -- Completely fixed. Ex Skull Sutures - Amphiarthrosis -- Limited movement. Often where Cart connects to bone. Ex Vert discs - Diarthrosis -- Wide range of motion. Ex Shoulders, knee \>✓Types of synovial joints based on movement, ex, hinge, ball-and-socket, gliding, pivot, saddle, condyloid. - Hinge -- Only allow Flexion and Extension. Bone in concave surface of another. - B-A-S -- Movement in all directions - \>Gliding (Planar) -- Sliding movements between flat bone surfaces. - Pivot -- Rotation - \>Saddle -- Both concave and convex. Biaxial movement - \>Condyloid (Ellipsoid) -- Up down and Side to side movements. Oval shaped bone fitting into a complementary depression ??????Examples of types of joints -- hip, knee, shoulder, wrist, thumb, ankle, etc. ✓Bony joints -- synostosis SYN-together Ostosis-bone \>✓Fibrous joints -- gomphosis, suture, syndesmosis - **Gomphosis -** The fibrous joint that anchors each tooth to its socket in the upper or lower jaw. Periodontal ligaments made of collagen fibers connect the tooth to the jaw.  - **Suture -** The fibrous joint that connects the bones of the skull, except for the mandible.  - **Syndesmosis -** A fibrous joint that can be narrow or wide:  - **Narrow syndesmosis**: The distal tibiofibular joint, where the tibia and fibula bones are connected by fibrous connective tissue and ligaments. Injuries to this joint are known as \"high ankle sprains\".  - **Wide syndesmosis**: The interosseous membrane that connects the shafts of two parallel bones, such as the radius and ulna in the forearm or the tibia and fibula in the leg.  \>✓Cartilaginous joints -- synchondrosis, symphysis - Cartilaginous joint - Joint where bones are connected by cartilage - \"synchondrosis\" refers to a joint where bones are joined by hyaline cartilage (usually temporary) - \"symphysis\" refers to a joint where bones are joined by fibrocartilage, allowing for slightly more movement \-\-\-\--MUSCLES\-\-\-\-- ✓Sources of ATP for muscles - Aerobic Respiration -- Uses oxygen in mitochondria to produce ATP - Anaerobic Respiration -- Breaks down glucose to produce ATP. Not ideal - Creatine Phosphate -- Provides phosphates to ADPs to make ATPs - Free ATP -- ATP that is available for immediate use ✓Innervation of muscles, neuromuscular junction - Innervation -- Process of sending neural signals to cause muscle contractions. - Neuromuscular Junction -- The synapse where Innervation takes place \>✓Motor units, recruitment (flesh out more?) - The activation of the appropriate number of neurons for the task. \>✓Parts of muscle cells - **Myofibrils:**These long, cylindrical structures within a muscle fiber are made up of repeating sarcomeres and are responsible for muscle contraction.  - **Sarcomeres:**Considered the functional unit of muscle contraction, sarcomeres contain overlapping actin and myosin filaments that slide past each other during muscle contraction.  - **Actin filaments:**Thin filaments primarily composed of the protein actin, which play a crucial role in muscle contraction by interacting with myosin.  - **Myosin filaments:**Thick filaments containing the protein myosin, which are responsible for pulling the actin filaments during muscle contraction.  - **Sarcoplasmic reticulum:**A network of membrane-bound sacs within the muscle cell that stores and releases calcium ions, essential for muscle contraction.  - **Endomysium:**Delicate connective tissue surrounding individual muscle fibers, providing support and allowing for blood vessels and nerves to reach the muscle cells.  \>✓Proteins found in muscle cells and their roles - **Actin (thin filaments):**A key component of the \"thin filaments\" in muscle fibers, forming the tracks along which myosin heads move to create contraction.  - **Myosin (thick filaments):**The \"motor protein\" that binds to actin filaments and pulls them together to shorten the muscle fiber during contraction.  - **Troponin:**A regulatory protein that binds calcium ions, which triggers the movement of tropomyosin to expose the myosin binding sites on actin, allowing muscle contraction to occur.  - **Tropomyosin:**A protein that lies along the actin filament, blocking the myosin binding sites until calcium ions bind to troponin, allowing for muscle contraction.  - **Titin:**A large structural protein that helps maintain the alignment of the sarcomeres within the muscle fiber and provides elasticity.  - **M-protein:**A protein located at the M-line in the center of the sarcomere, anchoring myosin filaments and helping to maintain their organization. \>✓Skeletal vs cardiac muscle (Flesh Out?) - Skeletal: Voluntary, Found on bones - Cardiac: Involuntary, only in heart ✓Filaments found in muscle Myofilaments, which include: - **Thin filaments**: Made up of mostly actin, these filaments are anchored to Z-discs by α-actinin.  - **Thick filaments**: Made up of mostly myosin, these filaments are made up of hundreds of myosin molecules that are arranged in a staggered array.  - **Titin**: An elastic protein that makes up a very thin myofilament. \>✓Sliding filament theory - Muscle contraction occurs when actin and myosin protein filaments slide past each other.  - **Actin and myosin** - Actin filaments are thin, while myosin filaments are thick. Actin filaments are made of globular proteins called G-actin, while myosin filaments are made of hundreds of myosin proteins.  - **Sarcomere** - Actin filaments are attached to Z discs, which mark the end of a sarcomere.  - **Muscle contraction** - When a muscle fiber is stimulated, the myosin filaments repeatedly attach to and pull on the actin filaments, causing them to slide past each other. This shortens the sarcomere, which in turn shortens the muscle. \>✓Mechanism of excitation-contraction coupling - **Action potential:** An action potential is propagated along the muscle cell membrane.  - **Calcium release:** The action potential triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) into the sarcoplasm.  - **Calcium binding:** The calcium ions bind to troponin, a protein complex that releases regulatory proteins like tropomyosin from their inhibitory binding sites on actin.  - **Sliding filament model:** The myosin and actin filaments move over one another, shortening the muscle fiber. This process is called cross-bridge cycling.  - **Muscle relaxation:** When muscle stimulation stops, the SR sequesters calcium ions again. ATP binds to myosin, causing it to release actin, and the muscle relaxes. \>✓Contract summation, treppe, incomplete tetany, tetany - **Treppe:** Occurs when a muscle is initially stimulated after rest, causing a gradual increase in contraction strength with each subsequent stimulus, while the muscle still has time to relax slightly between contractions.  - **Summation:** Refers to the additive effect of muscle contractions when stimuli are delivered close together, leading to a stronger contraction than a single twitch.  - **Incomplete Tetany:** Muscle undergoes rapid cycles of contraction with brief relaxation phases between them, resulting from high stimulation frequency.  - **Tetany:** Complete lack of relaxation between muscle contractions, creating a sustained, maximal contraction due to very high stimulation frequency.  ✓Muscle tone - Partial contraction of muscles that are at rest. ✓Muscle fiber types -- fast & slow oxidative, fast glycolytic - Slow Oxi (Type I) Relatively slow, use aerobic processes - Fast Oxi (Type IIa) Relatively quick, use aerobic processes - Glycolytic (Type IIx) Relatively quick, use anaerobic processes. \>✓Crossbridge recycling, power stroke - **Crossbridge formation:** When the myosin head binds to actin, forming a crossbridge, this is initiated by the presence of calcium ions which expose binding sites on the actin filament.  - **Power stroke occurs:** After the crossbridge forms, the myosin head undergoes a conformational change, pivoting and pulling the actin filament towards the center of the sarcomere.  - **ATP role:** ATP binds to the myosin head, causing it to detach from the actin filament, allowing the cycle to repeat.  - **Muscle contraction:** Multiple crossbridges cycling simultaneously across many sarcomeres within a muscle fiber leads to the overall shortening of the muscle fiber, resulting in contraction. ✓Specific role of ATP in skeletal versus smooth muscle - ATP is used to power the \"cross-bridge cycling\" in both muscle types, but the cycling speed is significantly slower in smooth muscle due to its unique regulatory pathways. ✓Striated versus smooth muscle - Striated muscle -- appears striped due to the organized arrangement of its contractile proteins. Typically voluntary and involved in movement like walking - Smooth muscle -- lacks striated appearance. Found in the walls of internal organs, contracting involuntarily to perform functions like digestion and blood pressure regulation ✓Voluntary versus involuntary muscle \>✓Mechanism of smooth muscle contraction - **Calcium influx:** A change in membrane potential, caused by a hormone or neurotransmitter, or by stretch-dependent ion channels, opens calcium channels in the cell membrane. This allows calcium to enter the cell from the extracellular space, or to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).  - **Calcium binding:** The calcium that enters the cell binds to calmodulin, a calcium-binding protein.  - **Myosin light chain kinase activation:** The calcium-calmodulin complex activates myosin light chain kinase (MLC kinase), which phosphorylates the myosin light chain.  - **Myosin-actin interaction:** The phosphorylated myosin light chain binds to actin, and the two proteins interact through a sliding filament mechanism to produce contraction. ✓Regenerative capabilities of muscle types - **Smooth muscle:** High regenerative ability, can readily replace damaged cells by dividing directly from pericytes.  - **Skeletal muscle:** Moderate regenerative ability, primarily repairs damage through \"satellite cells\" which are resident stem cells within the muscle fibers.  - **Cardiac muscle:** Very low regenerative ability, once damaged, cardiac muscle cells generally cannot be replaced effectively in mammals.  ✓Sarcomeres -- bands and lines - **Z-line** The dark line that separates each sarcomere, and marks the end of the actin filaments  - **I-band** The light band that contains only thin actin filaments, and surrounds the Z-line  - **A-band** The dark band that contains the entire thick myosin filament, and overlaps with the thin actin filaments  - **H-zone** The paler region within the A-band that contains only thick myosin filaments  - **M-line** The thin line that runs down the center of the sarcomere, through the middle of the myosin filaments  ✓Isotonic versus isometric contraction - **Isotonic:** Changes length while contracting (**T**onic **T**ransforms). Lifting a weight, walking, running  - **Isometric:** Contraction without movement (**M**etric **M**otionless). Holding a weight at a fixed position, doing a plank exercise, wall sit  \>✓Effects of different types of exercise on muscles, effect of exercise on joints - Strength training -- Building muscle mass and protecting joints - aerobic exercise - improving cardiovascular health - Flexibility exercises - increasing joint range of motion and reducing stiffness Joint disorders -- types of arthritis - **Osteoarthritis -** The most common type of arthritis, which is often caused by aging and wear and tear. It can affect the knees, hips, fingers, and spine.  - **Rheumatoid arthritis -** An autoimmune disease that occurs when the body\'s immune system attacks the joints. It can affect the hands and feet, and can also impact internal organs. Women are more likely to develop rheumatoid arthritis than men.  - **Gout -** A type of arthritis that causes sharp uric acid crystals to form in the joints, usually in the big toe. Men are more likely to develop gout than women.  - **Ankylosing spondylitis -** A type of arthritis that affects the spine and the joints where the spine connects to the pelvis. Symptoms include pain, swelling, redness, and heat.  - **Psoriatic arthritis -** A type of arthritis that affects people with psoriasis, a skin condition that causes red, scaly patches. Symptoms include joint swelling and stiffness, and can also affect the skin and nails.  - **Reactive arthritis -** A type of arthritis caused by an infection in the body. Symptoms include joint pain or swelling, and can also include red, swollen eyes and a swollen urinary tract. \>✓Relationships -- stability & movement in joints, length --tension in skeletal and smooth muscle - **Length-Tension Curve -** This curve illustrates how muscle tension varies depending on its length; muscles produce maximum force when at their optimal resting length, with tension decreasing significantly if stretched too long or shortened too much.  - **Joint Stability -** When muscles surrounding a joint are at their optimal length, they can effectively contract to provide stability and prevent excessive movement, maintaining proper joint alignment.  - **Movement and Muscle Contraction -** To initiate movement, muscles contract and shorten, generating force to move a joint through its range of motion; the length-tension relationship ensures that the muscle can produce enough force for the desired movement while still maintaining stability.  \>✓Ending a contraction - when the signal from the motor neuron stops, causing calcium ions to be pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), which then leads to the detachment of myosin heads from actin filaments, effectively relaxing the muscle fiber \>✓Stimulus intensity and frequency -- effects on muscle - **Intensity:** Higher intensity stimulation recruits more motor units, resulting in a greater force production. At very high intensities, discomfort and pain can occur.  - **Frequency:**