Psychology Textbook Summaries PDF

SUMMARY CHAPTER 1 1.1 **Define psychology.** *Psychology* is the scientific investigation of mental processes and behaviour. Understanding a person means practicing \'triple book-keeping\' --- simultaneously examining the person\'s biological make-up, psychological experience and functioning, and...

SUMMARY CHAPTER 1 1.1 **Define psychology.** *Psychology* is the scientific investigation of mental processes and behaviour. Understanding a person means practicing \'triple book-keeping\' --- simultaneously examining the person\'s biological make-up, psychological experience and functioning, and cultural and historical moment. 1.2 **Discuss the contributions of biopsychology and the sociocultural perspective**. - *Biopsychology* (or *behavioural neuroscience*) examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as motivation, emotion and stress. The *sociocultural perspective* emphasises social interaction and the cultural determinants of behaviour and mental processes. - *Cultural psychology* focuses on the patterns in behaviours and how culture influences those behaviours, and cross-cultural psychologists examine the similarities and differences in behaviours among various cultural groups. Biology and culture form the boundaries, or constraints, within which psychological processes operate. 1.3 **Outline the history of psychology.** - A classic question inherited from philosophy is whether human action is characterised by *free will* or *determinism* --- that is, whether people freely choose their actions or whether behaviour follows lawful patterns. A related issue is the *mind-body problem* --- the question of how mental and physical events interact. - The field of psychology began in the late nineteenth century as experimental psychologists attempted to wrest questions about the mind from philosophers. Most shared a strong belief in the scientific method as a way of avoiding philosophical debates about the way the mind works. Among the earliest schools of thought were structuralism and functionalism. *Structuralism*, developed by Edward Titchener, attempted to use introspection to uncover the basic elements of consciousness and the way they combine with one another into ideas (i.e., the structure of consciousness).\ *Functionalism* looked for explanations of psychological processes in their role, or function, in helping the individual adapt to the environment. 1.4 **Distinguish among the major theoretical perspectives in psychology.** - A *paradigm* is a broad system of theoretical assumptions that a scientific community uses to make sense of a domain of experience. Psychology lacks a unified paradigm but has a number of schools of thought, or *perspectives*, which are broad ways of understanding psychological phenomena. A psychological perspective, like a paradigm, includes theoretical propositions, shared metaphors and accepted methods of observation. - The *psychodynamic perspective* originated with Sigmund Freud. From a psychodynamic perspective, most psychological processes that guide behaviour are unconscious. Thus, consciousness is like the tip of an iceberg. Because a primary aim is to interpret the meanings or motives of human behaviour, psychodynamic psychologists have relied primarily on case study methods, although ongoing efforts to apply more rigorous methods to psychodynamic concepts are likely to prove fruitful in integrating these concepts into scientific psychology. - The *behaviourist perspective* focuses on the relationship between environmental events (or *stimuli*) and the responses of the organ-ism. Skinner proposed that all behaviour can ultimately be understood as learned responses and that behaviours are selected on the basis of their consequences. A primary metaphor underlying behaviourism is the machine; many behaviourists also consider the\ \'mind\' to be an unknowable black box because its contents cannot be studied scientifically. The primary method of behaviourists is laboratory experimentation. - The *humanistic perspective* emphasises the uniqueness of the individual and focuses on the person\'s immediate experience. According to this perspective, people are motivated to achieve personal goals so that they can fulfil their true potential. As a result, humanistic methods typically tocus on helping individuals to understand their own unique trame of reference and work towards achieving *self actualisation*, defined as the fulfilment of the whole range of needs. - The *cognitive perspective* focuses on the way people process, store and retrieve information. *Information processing* refers to taking input from the environment and transforming it into meaningful output. A metaphor underlying the cognitive perspective is the mind as a computer, complete with software. In recent years, however, many cognitive psychologists have used the brain itself as a metaphor for the way mental processes operate. - The *evolutionary perspective* argues that many human behavioural proclivities exist because they helped our ancestors survive and produce offspring that would be more likely to survive. *Natural selection* is the mechanism by which natural forces select traits in organisms that help them thrive in their environment. The basic notion of evolutionary theory is that evolution selects organisms that maximise their *reproductive success*, defined as the capacity to survive and reproduce, and maximise the *reproductive success* of genetically related individuals. The primary methods are deductive and comparative, Although evolutionary psychologists are increasingly relying on experimental methods. - Although the five major perspectives developed independently, each has made distinctive contributions. The *biopsychosocial model* recognises that there is usually no single cause for our behaviour, or our mental states and that biological, psychological, and social processes are interrelated and interacting influences. **1.5 Discuss the educational requirements for psychologists and outline their most common work settings.** - You must register with a psychologists\' registration board to practice as a psychologist in Australia and New Zealand. The career prospects for psychologists are strong. Psychologists work in a variety of settings, including health and community services, education, government administration and private practice. Most psychologists have chosen to become members of the peak bodies that represent psychologists, to help establish and enforce high standards in the profession. KEY TERMS - adaptive traits A term applied to traits that help organisms adjust to their environment. - behavioural genetics A field that examines the genetic and environmental bases of differences among individuals on psychological traits. - Behaviourism See behaviourist perspective. - behaviourist or behavioural perspective the perspective pioneered by John Watson and B. F. Skinner, which focuses on the relationship between observable behaviours and environmental. - biopsychology or behavioural neuroscience The field of investigation that examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as motivation, emotion and stress; also called - biopsychosocial model A model that recognises that there is usually no single cause for our behaviour or our mental states and that biological, psychological and social processes are both interrelated and interacting influences. - Cartesian dualism the doctrine of dual spheres of mind and body. cognition Thought and memory. - cognitive perspective A psychological perspective that focuses on the way people perceive, process and retrieve information. conservation psychology the study of the reciprocal relationships between humans and nature, with a focus on changing attitudes and behaviours to encourage conservation of the environment. critical thinking A skill that involves carefully examining and analysing information to judge its value, assessing both its strengths and its weaknesses and considering alternative - cross-cultural psychology A field that focuses on the patterns the similarities and differences and how they influence behaviours. - cultural psychology A field that focuses on the patterns in behaviours, and how culture influences those behaviours. - Empathy The capacity to understand another person\'s experience, both cognitively and emotionally. - empiricism the belief that the path to scientific knowledge is systematic observation and, ideally, experimental observation. - Ethology The field that studies animal behaviour from a biological - evolutionary perspective the viewpoint built on Darwin\'s principle of natural selection that argues that human behavioural proclivities must be understood in the context of their evolutionary and adaptive significance. - evolutionary psychologists Specialists that apply evolutionary thinking to a wide range of psychological phenomena. - falsifiability criterion The assertion that when researchers are testing hypotheses, they must frame them in such a way as to allow for them to be proven false, and that if this does indeed occur, then a logical result is that the theory on which the hypothesis is base must be modified or developed in some way so - free will or determinism The philosophical question of whether people act on the basis of their freely chosen intentions, or whether their actions are caused or determined by physical processes in their bodies or in the environment in which they live. - functionalism An early school of thought in psychology influenced by Darwinian theory that looked for explanations of psychological processes in terms of their role, or function, in helping the individual adapt to the environment. - Gestalt psychology A school of psychology that holds that perception is an active experience of imposing order on an overwhelming panorama of details by seeing them as parts of - humanistic perspective an approach to personality that focuses on aspects of personality that are distinctly human, not shared by other animals. - ideal self A person\'s view of what she or he would like to be. - Indigenous psychology examines psychological phenomena in an ecological, historical and cultural context, emphasising the knowledge, skills, strengths and beliefs that Indigenous peoples from within a given culture hold about themselves. - inclusive fitness The notion that natural selection favours organisms that survive, reproduce, and foster the survival and reproduction of their kin. - information processing The transformation, storage and retrieval of environmental inputs through thought and memory. - introspection The method used by Wundt and other structuralists in which trained participants verbally reported everything that went through their minds when presented with a stimulus or task; more generally, refers to the process of looking inward at one\'s own mental contents or process. - localisation of function The extent to which different parts of the brain control different aspects of functioning. - mind-body problem The question of how mental and physical events interact. - natural selection A theory proposed by Darwin which states that natural forces select traits in organisms that help them adapt to their environment. - nature-nurture controversy The question of the degree to which inborn biological processes or environmental events determine human behaviour. - paradigm A broad system of theoretical assumptions employed by a scientific community to make sense out of a domain of experience. - person-centred Carl Rogers\' therapeutic approach that focuses on the individual\'s phenomenal world. - perspectives Broad ways of understanding psychological phenomena, including theoretical propositions, shared metaphors and accepted methods of observation. - positive psychology The focus on understanding and harnessing positive emotions and actively stimulating conditions that produce valued, subjective experiences that help people flourish. - psychiatrists Specialists who have medical degrees and prescribe medication to treat mental illness. - psychodynamic perspective The perspective initiated by Sigmund Freud that focuses on the dynamic interplay of mental forces. psychodynamics A view analogous to dynamics among physical forces in which psychological forces such as wishes, fears and intentions have a direction and an intensity. - psychological anthropologists People who study psychological phenomena in other cultures by observing people in their natural settings. - psychologists Professionals who examine why people behave the way they do; they consider the thought processes that underpin behaviour. - psychology The scientific investigation of mental processes and behaviour. - rationalist philosophers Philosophers who emphasise the role of reason in creating knowledge. - reproductive success The capacity to survive and produce offspring. - self-actualised People are motivated to fulfil the whole range of needs that humans experience. - self-concept An organised pattern of thought and perception about - oneself. - sociobiology A field that explores possible evolutionary and biological bases of human social behaviour. - sociocultural perspective represents a modern approach to psychology that emphasises social interaction and the cultural determinants of behaviour and mental processes. - stimuli Objects or events in the environment that elicit a response in an organism. - structuralism An early school of thought in psychology developed by Edward Titchener, which attempted to use introspection as a method for uncovering the basic elements of consciousness and the way they combine with each other into ideas. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Define structuralism and explain how it differs from functionalism. 2. Describe the key premises of the psychodynamic perspective. 3. Compare and contrast the major contributions of the behaviourist and cognitive perspectives. 4. Describe the role of self-actualisation in the humanistic 5. Describe the basic premise of the evolutionary perspective. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Comment on the philosophical issue \'free will versus determinism\'. Do people make free choices or are their actions determined by forces outside of their control? 2. Outline the most important figures in the history of psychology. 3. There are many competing theoretical perspectives in psychology.\ Which one is right? SUMMARY 6.1 Describe the basic units of the nervous system. - The firing of billions of nerve cells provides the physiological basis for psychological processes. - Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous sys-tem. Sensory neurons carry sensory information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. Motor neurons transmit commands from the brain to the glands and muscles of the body.\ Interneurons connect neurons with one another. - A neuron typically has a cell body, dendrites (branch-like extensions of the cell body) and an axon that carries information to other neurons. Axons are often covered with myelin for more efficient electrical transmission. Located on the axons are terminal buttons, which contain neurotransmitters, chemicals that transmit information across the synapse (the space between neurons through which they communicate). - The \'resting\' voltage at which a neuron is not firing is called the resting potential. When a neuron stimulates another neuron, it either depolarises the membrane (reducing its polarisation) or hyperpolarises it (increasing its polarisation). The spreading voltage changes that occur when the neural membrane receives signals from other cells are called graded potentials. If enough depolarising graded potentials accumulate to cross a threshold, the neuron will fire. This action potential, or nerve impulse, leads to the release of neurotransmitters (such as glutamate, GABA, dopamine, serotonin and acetylcholine). These chemical messages are received by receptors in the cell membrane of other neurons, which in turn can excite or inhibit those neurons. Modulatory neurotransmitters can increase or reduce the impact of other neurotransmitters released into the synapse. 6.2 Describe the major structures and functions of the endocrine system. - The endocrine system is a collection of glands that control various bodily functions through the secretion of hormones. The endocrine system complements the cell-to-cell communication of the nervous system by sending global messages through the bloodstream. 6.3 Explain the major subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system - The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of neurons that carry messages to and from the central nervous system. - The PNS has to subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system consists of the sensory neurons that receive information through sensory receptors in the skin, muscles and other parts of the body, such as the eyes, and the motor neurons that direct the action of skeletal muscles. The autonomic nervous system controls basic life processes such as the beating of the heart, workings of the digestive system and breathing. It consists of two parts, the sympathetic nervous system, which is activated in response to threats, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which returns the body to normal and works to maintain the body\'s energy resources. 6.4 Describe the major structures and functions of the central nervous system. - The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is hierarchically organised, with an overall structure that follows its evolution. Centres that have evolved more recently regulate many of the processes that occur at lower levels. - Aside from carrying out reflexes, the spinal cord transmits sensory information to the brain and transmits messages from the brain to the muscles and organs. - Several structures comprise the hindbrain. The medulla oblon-gata controls vital physiological functions, such as heartbeat, circulation and respiration and forms a link between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. The cerebellum appears to be involved in a variety of tasks, including learning, discriminating stimuli from one another and coordinating smooth movements. The reticular formation maintains consciousness and helps regulate activity and arousal states throughout the CNS, including sleep cycles. - The midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum. The tectum includes structures involved in orienting to visual and auditory stimuli as well as others involved in linking unpleasant feelings to behaviours that can help the animal escape or avoid them. The tegmentum includes parts of the reticular formation and other\ nuclei with a variety of functions, of which two are particularly important: movement and the linking of pleasure to behaviours that help the animal obtain reward. - The forebrain consists of the hypothalamus, thalamus and cere-brum. The hypothalamus is involved in regulating a wide range of behaviours, including eating, sleeping, sexual activity and emotional experience. The thalamus is a complex of nuclei that perform a number of functions; one of the most important is to process arriving sensory information and transmit this information to higher brain centres. - The cerebrum includes a number of subcortical structures as well as an outer layer, or cortex. The subcortical structures are the limbic system and the basal ganglia. Structures of the lim-bie system (the septal area, amygdala and hippocampus) are involved in emotion, motivation, learning and memory. Basal ganglia structures are involved in movement, mood and memory. - In humans, the cerebral cortex allows the flexible construction of sequences of voluntary movements, enables people to discriminate complex sensory patterns and provides the capacity to think symbolically. The primary areas of the cortex receive sensory information and initiate motor movements. The association areas are involved in putting together perceptions, ideas and plans. - The right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are connected by the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere consists of four sections or lobes. The occipital lobes are specialised for vision. The parietal lobes are involved in a number of functions, including the sense of touch, movement and the experience of one\'s own body and other objects in space. The functions of the frontal lobes include coordination of movement, attention, planning, social skills, conscience, abstract thinking, memory and aspects of personality. Sections of the temporal lobes are important in hearing, language and visual object recognition. Some psychological functions are lateralised or primarily processed by one hemisphere. - Cultural and environmental factors can modify not only behaviour but also the structure of the brain. Neuroplasticity suggests that the brain is a dynamic organ that continues to develop and change itself in response to neural, environmental and behavioural expe-riences. Neurogenesis is the process by which neurons can be produced or repair themselves structurally or biochemically in the central nervous system. Cognitive neuropsychology is a branch of cognitive psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes. 6.5 Describe the relative roles of genetics and environment in psychological functioning. - Environment and genes interact in staggeringly complex ways that psychologists are just beginning to understand. Psychologists interested in genetics study the influence of genetic blueprints (genotypes) on observable psychological attributes or qualities (phenotypes). Studies in behavioural genetics suggest that a substantial portion of the variation among individuals on many psychological attributes such as intelligence and personality is heritable. Heritability refers to the proportion of variability among individuals on an observed trait (phenotypic variance) that can be accounted for by variability in their genes (genotypic variance). KEY TERMS - acetylcholine (ACh) A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contractions, learning and memory. - action potential A temporary shift in the polarity of the cell membrane, which leads to the firing of a neuron. adrenal glands Endocrine glands located above the kidneys that secrete adrenaline and other hormones during emergency situations. - adrenaline A hormone that triggers physiological arousal, particularly in potential danger situations. - amygdala A brain structure associated with the expression of rage and fear and calculation of the emotional significance of a stimulus. - association areas The areas of cortex involved in putting together perceptions, ideas and plans. - autonomic nervous system The part of the peripheral nervous system that serves visceral or internal bodily structures connected with basic life processes, such as the beating of the heart and breathing. It consists of two parts: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. - axon The long extension from the cell body of a neuron through which electrical impulses pass. - basal ganglia A set of structures located near the thalamus and hypothalamus involved in the control of movement and in judgements that require minimal conscious thought. blindsight A phenomenon in which individuals with cortical lesions have no conscious visual awareness but can make discriminations about objects placed in front of them. - Broca\'s area A brain structure located in the left frontal lobe at the base of the motor cortex, involved in the movements of the mouth and tongue necessary for speech production and in the use of grammar. - cell body The part of the neuron that includes a nucleus containing the genetic material of the cell (the chromosomes), as well as other microstructures vital to cell functioning. central nervous system (CNS) The brain and spinal cord. cerebellum A large bulge in the dorsal or back area of the brain. responsible for the coordination of smooth, well-sequenced movements as well as maintaining equilibrium and regulating postural reflexes. - cerebral cortex The many-layered surface of the cerebrum, which allows complex voluntary movements, permits subtle discriminations among complex sensory patterns and makes symbolic thinking possible. - cerebral hemispheres The two halves of the cerebrum. cerebrum The \'thinking\' centre of the brain, which includes the cortex and subcortical structures such as the basal ganglia and limbic system. - chromosomes Strands of DNA arranged in pairs. cognitive neuropsychology A branch of cognitive psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes. - corpus callosum A band of fibres that connects the two hemispheres of the brain. cortex See cerebral cortex. - degree of relatedness The probability that two people share any particular gene. - dendrites Branch-like extensions of the neuron that receive information from other cells. - dizygotic (DZ, or fraternal) twins Twins who, like other siblings, share only about half of their genes, having developed from the union of two sperm with two separate eggs. - dopamine A neurotransmitter with wide-ranging effects in the nervous system, involved in thought, feeling, motivation and behaviour. - endocrine system The collection of ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream and control various bodily and psychological functions. - endorphins Chemicals in the brain similar to morphine that elevate mood and reduce pain. - estrogens Hormones produced by the female gonads, the ovaries, which control sex drive as well as the development of secondary sex characteristics. - forebrain Involved in complex sensory, emotional, cognitive and behavioural processes and consists of the hypothalamus, thalamus and cerebrum. - frontal lobes Brain structures involved in coordination of movement, attention, planning, social skills, conscience, abstract thinking, memory and aspects of personality. - GABA Acronym for gamma-aminobutyric acid, one of the most widespread neurotransmitters in the nervous system, which largely plays an inhibitory role in the brain. gene The unit of hereditary transmission. - glutamate One of the most widespread neurotransmitters in the nervous system, which largely plays an excitatory role; also called glutamic acid. - gonads Endocrine glands that influence much of sexual development and behaviour. - graded potentials A spreading voltage change that occurs when the neural membrane receives a signal from another cell. heritability The extent to which individual differences in phenotype are determined by genetic factors or genotype. heritability coefficient The statistic that quantifies the degree to which a trait is heritable. - hindbrain The part of the brain above the spinal cord that includes the medulla, cerebellum and parts of the reticular formation. hippocampus A structure in the limbic system involved in the acquisition and consolidation of new information in memory. hormones Chemicals secreted directly into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands. - hypothalamus The brain structure situated directly below the thalamus involved in the regulation of eating, sleeping, sexual activity, movement and emotion. - interneurons Neurons that connect other neurons to each other, found only in the brain and spinal cord. - lateralised Localised on one or the other side of the brain. learning Any relatively permanent change in the way an organism responds based on its experience. - limbic system Subcortical structures responsible for emotional reactions, many motivational processes, learning and aspects of memory. - medulla oblongata or medulla An extension of the spinal cord, essential to life, controlling such vital physiological functions as heartbeat, circulation and respiration. - midbrain The section of the brain above the hindbrain involved in some auditory and visual functions, movement, and conscious arousal and activation. - monozygotic (MZ., or identical) twins Twins identical in their genetic make-up, having developed from the union of the same sperm and egg. - motor cortex The primary zone of the frontal lobes responsible for control of motor behaviour. - motor neurons Neurons that transmits commands from the brain to the glands or musculature of the body, typically through the spinal cord; also called efferent neurons. - myelin sheath - A tight coat of cells composed primarily of lipids, - which serves to insulate the axon from chemical or physical stimuli that might interfere with the transmission of nerve impulses and speeds neural transmission. - nervous system The interacting network of nerve cells that - underlies all psychological activity. - neurogenesis The process by which neurons can be produced or repair themselves structurally or biochemically in the central - net yous sysicall - neuroimaging techniques Methods for studying the brain that use computer programs to convert the data taken from brain-scanning devices into visual images. - neurons Cells in the nervous system. - neuroplasticity Suggests that the brain is a dynamic organ that continues to develop and change itself in response to neural, environmental and behavioural experiences. - neurotransmitters Chemicals that transmit information from one - neuron to another. - noradrenaline A hormone that triggers physiological arousal, particularly in potential danger situations. - occipital lobes - Brain structures located in the rear portion of the - cortex, involved in vision. - parasympathetic nervous system The part of the autonomic nervous system involved in conserving and maintaining the body\'s energy resources. - parietal lobes Brain structures located in front of the occipital lobes, involved in a number of functions, including sense of touch and the experience of one\'s own body in space and in movement. - Parkinson\'s disease A disorder characterised by uncontrollable tremors, repetitive movements, and difficulty in both initiating behaviour and stopping movements already in progress. peripheral nervous system (PNS) A component of the nervous system that includes neurons that travel to and from the central nervous system; includes the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. - pituitary gland Often referred to as the \'master gland\' of the endocrine system because many of the hormones it releases stimulate and thus regulate the hormonal action of other endocrine glands. - primary areas The areas of the cortex involved in sensory functions and in the direct control of motor movements. receptors In neurons, protein molecules in the postsynaptic membrane that pick up neurotransmitters, in sensation, - specialised cells of the sensory systems that respond to the environmental stimuli and typically activate sensory neurons. reflexes A hehaviour that is elicited automatically by an environmental stimulus. - resting potential Condition in which the neuron is not firing. reticular formation A diffuse network of neurons that extends from the lowest parts of the medulla in the hindbrain to the upper end of the midbrain, serving to maintain consciousness, regulate arousal levels and modulate the activity of neurons throughout the central nervous system. - sensory neurons Neurons that transmit information from sensory cells in the body to the brain. - serotonin A neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of mood, sleep, eating, arousal and pain. - somatic nervous system The division of the peripheral nervous system that consists of sensory and motor neurons that transmit sensory information and control intentional actions. - somatosensory cortex The primary area of the parietal lobes, located behind the central tissue, which receives sensory information from different sections of the body. - spinal cord The part of the central nervous system that transmits information from sensory neurons to the brain, and from the brain to motor neurons that initiate movement; it is also capable of reflex actions. - split brain The condition that results when the corpus callosum has been surgically cut, blocking communication between the two cerebral hemispheres. - subcortical structures Structures within the cerebrum, such as the basal ganglia and limbic system, which lie below the cortex. sympathetic nervous system A branch of the autonomic nervous system, typically activated in response to threats to the organism, which readies the body for \'fight-or-flight\' reactions. - synapse The place at which transmission of information between neurons occur. - tectum A midbrain structure involved in vision and hearing. tegmentum Midbrain structure that includes a variety of neural structures, related mostly to movement and conscious arousal and activation. - temporal lobes Brain structures located in the lower side portion of the cortex that are important in audition (hearing) and language. terminal buttons Structures at the end of the neuron that receive nerve impulses from the axon and transmit signals to adjacent cells. - testosterone The hormone produced by the male gonads (testes). thalamus A structure located deep in the centre of the brain that acts as a relay station for sensory information, processing it and transmitting it to higher brain centres. - thyroid gland Endocrine structure located next to the trachea and larynx in the neck, which releases hormones that control growth and metabolism. - Wernicke\'s area A brain structure located in the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Describe the functions of the three kinds of neurons 2. Describe how the tiring of a neuror of ar action potenial works. 3. Describe how a nerve impulse is transmitted down the axon. 4. Define the role of neurotransmitters and explain the psychological nervous systems. functions of the following neurotransmitters: glutamate, GABA, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine and endorphins. 5. Describe the functions of the following endocrine glands: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands and gonads. 6. Distinguish between the functions of the somatic and autonomic DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How does the design of the human nervous system reflect its evolution? 2. Can a brain lesion bring about a change in your personality? 3. Explain the influence of genetics on psychological functioning. CHAPTER 7 7.1 Outline the three basic principles that apply to all senses. - Sensation refers to the process by which sense organs gather information about the environment and transmit it to the brain for initial processing. Perception refers to the closely related process by which the brain selects, organises and interprets sensations. - Three basic principles apply across all the senses. First, there is no one-to-one correspondence between physical and psychological reality. Second, sensation and perception are active, not passive.\ Third, sensation and perception are adaptive. 7.2 Describe the processes common to all sensory systems. - Sensation begins with an environmental stimulus; all sensory systems have specialised cells called sensory receptors that respond to environmental stimuli and typically generate action potentials in adjacent sensory neurons. This process is called transduction.\ Within each sensory modality, the brain codes sensory stimulation for intensity and quality. - The absolute threshold refers to the minimum amount of stimulation needed for an observer to notice a stimulus. The signal detection theory asserts that people make a judgement about whether a stimulus is present or absent. The difference threshold refers to the lowest level of stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred (a just noticeable difference \[jnd\]). - Weber\'s law states that regardless of the magnitude of two stimuli, the second must differ by a constant proportion from the first for it to be perceived as different. Fechner\'s law holds that the physical magnitude of a stimulus grows logarithmically as the subjective experience of intensity grows arithmetically: in other words, people only subjectively experience a small percentage of actual increases in stimulus intensity. Stevens\' power law states that subjective intensity grows as a proportion of the actual intensity raised to some power; that is, that sensation increases in a linear fashion as actual intensity grows exponentially. - Sensory adaptation is the tendency of sensory systems to respond less to stimuli that continue without change. - Subliminal perception is the tendency to perceive information outside our conscious awareness. 7.3 Explain how light wavelengths are transformed into vision and colour. - The eyes are sensitive to a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum called light. In vision, light is focused on the retina by the cornea, pupil and lens. Rods are very sensitive to light, allowing vision in dim light; cones are especially sensitive to particular wavelengths, producing the psychological experience of colour.\ Cones are concentrated at the fovea, the region of the retina most sensitive to detail. - The ganglion cells of the retina transmit visual information via the optic nerve to the brain. Ganglion cells, like other neurons involved in sensation, have receptive fields, a region of stimulation to which the neuron responds. Feature detectors are specialised cells in the cortex that respond only when stimulation in their receptive field matches a particular pattern or orientation, such as horizontal or vertical lines. - From the primary visual cortex, visual information flows along two pathways, or processing streams, called the \'what\' and the \'where\' pathways. The \'what\' pathway is involved in determining what an object is; this network runs from the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobes through the lower part of the temporal lobes (the inferior temporal cortex). The second stream, the \'where\' pathway, is involved in locating the object in space, following its movement and guiding movement towards it. This pathway runs from the primary visual cortex through the middle and upper regions of the temporal lobes and up into the parietal lobes. - The property of light that is transduced into colour is wavelength. The Young-Helmholtz, or trichromatic, theory proposes that the eye contains three types of sensory receptors, sensitive to red, green or blue. Opponent-process theory argues for the existence of pairs of opposite primary colours linked in three systems: a blue-yellow system, a red-green system and a black-white system. Both theories appear to be involved in colour perception; trichromatic theory is operative at the level of the retina and opponent-process theory at higher neural levels. 7.4 Explain how sound waves are transformed into hearing. - Hearing, or audition, occurs as a vibrating object sets air particles in motion. Each round of expansion and contraction of the air is known as a cycle. The number of cycles per second determines a sound wave\'s frequency expressed in hertz (Hz), which corresponds to the psychological property of pitch. Amplitude, expressed in decibels (dB), refers to the height and depth of the wave and corresponds to the psychological property of loudness. - Sound waves travel through the auditory canal to the eardrum, where they are amplified. Transduction occurs by way of hair cells attached to the basilar membrane that respond to vibrations in the fluid-filled cochlea. This mechanical process triggers action potentials in the auditory nerve, which are then transmitted to the brain. - Two theories, once considered opposing, explain the psychological qualities of sound. Place theory, which holds that different areas of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies, appears to be most accurate for high frequencies. Frequency theory asserts that the basilar membrane\'s rate of vibration reflects the frequency with which a sound wave cycles, explains the sensation of low-frequency sounds. 7.5 Distinguish among the main functions of smell, taste, touch and the vestibular and kinaesthetic systems. - The environmental stimuli for smell, or olfaction, are invisible molecules of gas emitted by substances and suspended in the air.\ As air enters the nose, it flows into the olfactory epithelium, where hundreds of different types of receptors respond to various kinds of molecules, producing complex smells. The axons of olfactory receptor cells constitute the olfactory nerve, which transmits information to the olfactory bulbs under the frontal lobes and on to the primary olfactory cortex, a primitive region of the cortex deep in the frontal lobes. - Taste, or gustation, is sensitive to molecules soluble in saliva.\ Much of the experience of flavour, however, is really contributed by smell. Taste occurs as receptors in the tastebuds on the tongue and throughout the mouth transduce chemical information into neural information, which is integrated with olfactory information in the brain. - Touch includes three senses: pressure, temperature and pain. The human body contains approximately 5 million touch receptors of at least seven different types. Sensory neurons synapse with spinal interneurons that stimulate motor neurons, allowing reflexive action. They also synapse with neurons that carry information up the spinal cord to the medulla, where nerve tracts cross over.\ From there, sensory information travels to the thalamus and is subsequently routed to the primary touch centre in the brain, the somatosensory cortex, which contains a map of the body. - Pain is greatly affected by beliefs, expectations and emotional state. Gate-control theory holds that the experience of pain is heavily influenced by the central nervous system, through the action of neural fibres that can \'close the gate\' on pain, preventing messages from other fibres getting through. - The proprioceptive senses provide information about the body\'s position and movement. The vestibular sense provides information on the position of the body in space by sensing gravity and movement. Kinaesthesia provides information about the movement and position of the limbs and other parts of the body relative to one another. 7.6 Describe the various ways in which perception is organised. - The hallmarks of perception are organisation and interpretation.\ Perceptual organisation integrates sensations into meaningful units, locates them in space, tracks their movement and preserves their meaning as the perceiver observes them from different vantage points. Form perception refers to the organisation of sensations into meaningful shapes and patterns (percepts). The Gestalt psychologists described several principles of form perception, including figure-ground perception, similarity, proximity. good continuation, simplicity and closure. A more recent theory. called recognition-by-components, asserts that we perceive and categorise objects in the environment by breaking them down into component parts, much like letters in words. - Depth perception is the organisation of perception in three dimensions. Depth perception organises two-dimensional retinal images into a three-dimensional world, primarily through binocular and monocular visual cues. - Motion perception refers to the perception of movement. Two systems appear to be involved in motion perception. The first calculates motion from the changing image projected by the object on the retina; the second makes use of commands from the brain to the muscles in the eye that signal eye movements. - Perceptual constancy refers to the organisation of changing seu-sations into percepts that are relatively stable in size, shape and colour. Three types of perceptual constancy are size, shape and colour constancy, which refer to the perception of unchanging size, shape and colour despite momentary changes in the retinal image. The processes that organise perception leave perceivers vulnerable to perceptual illusions, some of which appear to be innate and others of which depend on culture and experience. - Perceptual interpretation involves generating meaning from sensory experience. Perceptual interpretation lies at the intersection of sensation and memory, as the brain interprets current sensations in the light of past experience. Perception is neither entirely innate nor entirely learned. The nervous system has certain innate poten-tials, but these potentials require environmental input to develop.\ Experience can alter the structure of the brain, making it more or less responsive to subsequent sensory input. - Bottom-up processing refers to processing that begins \'at the bot-tom\', with raw sensory data that feeds \'up\' to the brain. Top-down processing starts \'at the top\', from the observer\'s expectations and knowledge. According to current thinking, perception proceeds in both directions simultaneously. - Experience with the environment shapes perceptual interpretation by creating perceptual expectations called perceptual set. Two aspects of perceptual set are current context and enduring know!-edge structures called schemas. Motives, like expectations, can influence perceptual interpretation. KEY TERMS - absolute threshold The minimum amount of physical energy (stimulation) needed for an observer to notice a stimulus. accommodation In vision, the changes in the shape of the lens that focus light rays; in Piaget\'s theory, the modification of schemas to fit reality. - amplitude The difference between the minimum and maximum pressure levels in a sound wave, measured in decibels; amplitude corresponds to the psychological property of loudness. - audition Hearing. - auditory nerve The bundle of sensory neurons that transmit - auditory information from the ear to the brain. binocular cells Neurons that receive information from both eyes. binocular cues Visual input integrated from two eyes that provides perception of depth. - bipolar cells Neurons in the retina that combine information from many receptors and excite ganglion cells. - blind spot The point on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the - eye and which contains no receptor cells. blindsight A phenomenon in which individuals with cortical lesions have no conscious visual awareness but can make discriminations about objects placed in front of them. bottom-up processing Perceptual processing that starts with raw sensory data that feed \'up\' to the brain; what is perceived is determined largely by the features of the stimuli reaching the sense organs. - closure A Gestalt rule of perception which states that people tend to perceive incomplete figures as complete. - cochlea The three-chambered tube in the inner ear in which sound is transduced. - colour constancy. The tendency to perceive the colour of objects as stable despite changing illumination. - complexity The extent to which a sound wave is composed of multiple frequencies. cones One of two types of photoreceptors, which are specialised for - colour vision and allow perception of fine detail. consciousness The subjective awareness of mental events. cornea The tough, transparent tissue covering the front of the eyeball. - cycle A single round of expansion and contraction of the distance between molecules of air in a sound wave. - decibels (dB) Units of measure of amplitude (loudness) of a sound wave. - depth perception The organisation of perception in three dimensions; also called distance perception. - difference threshold The smallest difference in intensity between two stimuli that a person can detect. direct perception A theory which states that sensory information intrinsically carries meaning. - eardrum The thin, flexible membrane that marks the outer boundary of the middle ear; the eardrum is set in motion by sound waves and in turn sets in motion the ossicles; also called the tympanic membrane. feature detectors Neurons that fire only when stimulation in their receptive field matches a particular patter or orientation. - Fechner\'s law The law of psychophysics proposed by Gustav Fechner, that the subjective magnitude of a sensation grows as a proportion of the logarithm of the stimulus. figure-ground perception A fundamental rule of perception described by Gestalt psychology that states that people inherently differentiate between figure (the object they are viewing, sound to which they are listening, etc.) and ground (background). - form perception The organisation of sensations into meaningful shapes and patterns. - fovea The central region of the retina, where light is most directly focused by the lens. - frequeney In a sound wave, the number of cycles per second. expressed in hertz and responsible for subjective experience of - frequency theory The theory of pitch that asserts that perceived pitch reflects the rate of vibration of the basilar membrane. ganglion cells Nerve cells in the retina that integrate information from multiple bipolar cells, the axons of which bundle together to form the optic nerve. - gate-control theory Theory that emphasises the role of the central nervous system in regulating pain. - good continuation A Gestalt rule of perception which states that, if possible, the brain organises stimuli into continuous lines or patterns rather than discontinuous elements. gustation Taste. hair cells Receptors for sound attached to the basilar membrane. hertz (Hz) The unit of measurement of frequency of sound waves. - hue The sensory quality people normally consider colour. hypnosis An altered state of consciousness characterised by deep relaxation and suggestibility which a person voluntarily enters through the efforts of a hypnotist. - iris The ring of pigmented tissue that gives the eye its blue, green or brown colour; its muscle fibres cause the pupil to constrict or dilate. just noticeable difference (jnd) The smallest difference in intensity between two stimuli that a person can detect. - kinaesthesia The sense that provides information about the movement and position of the limbs and other parts of the body; receptors in joints transduce information about the position of the bones, and receptors in the tendons and muscles transmit messages about muscular tension. - lens The disc-shaped, elastic structure of the eye that focuses light. loudness The psychological property corresponding to a sound wave\'s amplitude. - Müller-fLyer illusion A perceptual illusion in which two lines of equal length appear different in size. monocular cues Visual input from a single eye alone that contributes to depth perception. motion detectors Ganglion cells that are particularly sensitive to movement. - motion parallax A monocular depth cue involving the relative movements of retinal images of objects; nearby objects appear to speed across the field of vision, whereas distant objects barely seem to move. - motion perception The perception of movement in objects. olfaction Smell. - olfactory epithelium Thin pair of structures in which transduction of smell occurs. - olfactory nerve The bundle of axons from sensory receptor cells that transmits information from the nose to the brain. opponent-process theory A theory of colour vision that proposes the existence of three antagonistic colour systems: a blue-yellow system, a red-green system and a black-white system; according to this theory, the blue-yellow and red-green systems are responsible for hue, while the black-white system contributes to perception of brightness and saturation. - optic nerve The bundle of axons of ganglion cells that carries information from the retina to the brain. - perception The process by which the brain selects, organises and interprets sensations. percepts Meaningful perceptual units, such as images of particular objects. - perceptual constancy The organisation of changing sensations into percepts that are relatively stable in size, shape and colour. perceptual illusions Perceptual misinterpretations produced in the course of normal perceptual processes. - perceptual interpretation The process of generating meaning from sensory experience. - perceptual organisation The process of integrating sensations into meaningful perceptual units. phantom limbs Misleading \'sensations\' from missing limbs. pheromones Chemicals secreted by organisms in some species that allow communication between organisms. - pitch The psychological property corresponding to the frequency of a sound wave; the quality of a tone from low to high. place theory A theory of pitch which proposes that different areas of the basilar membrane are maximally sensitive to different frequencies. - proprioceptive senses Senses that provide information about body position and movement; the two proprioceptive senses are kinaesthesia and vestibular sense. - proximity A Gestalt rule of perception which states that, other things being equal, the brain groups objects together that are close to each other. - psychophysics Branch of psychology that studies the relationship between attributes of the physical world and the psychological experience of them. - pupil The opening in the centre of the iris that constricts or dilates to regulate the amount of light entering the eye. receptive field A region within which a neuron responds to appropriate stimulation. - recognition-by-components The theory that asserts that we perceive and categorise objects in our environment by breaking them down into component parts and then matching the components and the way they are arranged against similar \'sketches\' stored in memory. - response bias In signal detection theory, the participant\'s readiness to report detecting a signal when uncertain; also called decision criterion. - retina The light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye that transduces light into neural impulses. rods One of two types of photoreceptors; allow vision in dim light. schemas Integrated patterns of knowledge stored in memory that organise information and guide the acquisition of new information. - sensation The process by which the sense organs gather information about the environment. - sensory adaptation The tendency of sensory systems to respond less to stimuli that continue without change. - sensory receptors Specialised cells in the nervous system that transform energy in the environment into neural impulses that can be interpreted by the brain. - shape constancy The perception that an object\'s shape remains constant despite the changing shape of the retinal image as the object is viewed from varying perspectives. - signal detection theory The theory that experiencing a sensation means making a judgement about whether a stimulus is present or absent. - similarity A Gestalt rule of perception which states that the brain tends to group similar elements within a perceptual field simplicity A Gestalt rule of perception which states that people tend to perceive the simplest pattern possible. - size constancy The perception that the shape of objects remains unchanged in spite of the fact that different impressions are made on the retina each time the object is encountered. sound localisation Identifying the location of a sound in space. sound wave A pulsation of acoustic energy. - Stevens\' power law A law of sensation proposed by S. S. Stevens, which states that the subjective intensity of a stimulus grows as a proportion of the actual intensity raised to some power. subliminal perception Perception of stimuli below the threshold of - consciousness. - tastebuds Structures that line the walls of the papillae of the tongue (and elsewhere in the mouth) that contain taste receptors. timbre The psychological property corresponding to a sound - wave\'s complexity; the texture of a sound. top-down processing Perceptual processing that starts with the observer\'s expectations and knowledge. - transduction The process of converting physical energy into neural impulses. - trichromatic theory A theory of colour vision initially proposed by Thomas Young and modified by Herman von Helmholtz that proposes that the eye contains three types of receptors, each sensitive to wavelengths of light that produce sensations of blue. green and red; by this theory, the colours that humans see reflect blends of the three colours to which the retina is sensitive; also called the Young-Helmholtz theory - vestibular sense The sense that provides intormation about the position of the body in space by sensing gravity and movement. visual cliff A clear table with a checkerboard directly beneath it on one side and another checkerboard that appears to drop off like a cliff on the other, used especially with human infants in depth perception studies. - wavelength The distance over which a wave of energy completes. full oscillation. - Weber\'s law The perceptual law described by Ernst Weber that states that for two stimuli to be perceived as differing in intensity the second must differ from the first by a constant proportion. - \'what\' pathway The pathway running from the striate cortex in th occipital lobes through the lower part of the temporal lobes. involved in determining what an object is. - \'where\' pathway The pathway running from the striate cortex through the middle and upper regions of the temporal lobes and up into the parietal lobes, involved in locating an object in space. following its movement and guiding movement towards it. - Young-Helmholtz theory A theory of colour vision initially proposed by Young and modified by Helmholtz which proposes that the eye contains three types of receptors, each sensitive to wavelengths of light that produce sensations of blue, green and red; by this theory, the colours that humans see reflect blends of the three colours to which the retina is sensitive; also called trichromatic theory. 1. Describe how sensation differs from perception. 2. Discuss the features shared by all sensory modalities. 3. Compare and contrast the two theories of colour vision: trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory. 4. Explain how the place theory and the frequency theory each account for the psychological experiences of pitch and loudness. 5. Distinguish among the four aspects of perceptual organisation: form perception, depth perception, movement perception and perceptual constancy. Discussion question 1. How do your beliefs, expectations and emotional state affect your experience of pain? 2. What senses, in addition to vision and hearing, will help you to adapt to your environment? 3. How do context and schemas influence the interpretation of experience? Application questions 1. For each of the four scenarios listed, answer the question that fol-lows. A. Andrew is studying for a final exam. His mother brings him a cup of coffee to help him study through the night. He takes one mouthful of the coffee and says \'Thanks Mum, but you put one too many sugars in my coffee again!\' Explain Andrew\'s comment using the principles of absolute threshold. B. Karen has just returned home from holidays to find that her house has been burgled. That night, Karen tosses and turns in her sleep and wakes up in the early hours of the morn-with a start, believing she heard footsteps outside her window. Discuss this scenario using the principles of signal detection theory. C. Yong Wah is at the beach and has decided not to spend \$15\ for some fish and chips because he saw it advertised for \$9 at another seafood shop down the road. Later in the week he goes shopping for a new electric razor and does not think twice about spending an extra \$6 for an electric razor, valued at \$90.\ Explain this scenario using the principles of Weber\'s law. D. Giovanni is cooking a surprise dinner for friends but forgets to turn off the oven and burns the roast. His friends arrive and later, when he opens the oven door, smoke and a charcoal odour fill the room. A short time later, he and his friends no longer notice the smoke or odour in the room. Discuss this scenario using the principles of sensory adaptation. 2. For each of the examples, identify and describe the Gestalt principle involved. a. Stars in the sky form a constellation known as the Southern Cross. b. People sitting in a stadium appear to be in clusters of colour. c. A sequence of specks and squiggles on a scribble page appears to form a cat. d. Figure 7.38 is most likely perceived as the letter \'A\' superimposed onto an upside-down triangle. CHAPTER 8 SUMMARIES 8.1 Describe the two main functions of consciousness. - Consciousness refers to the subjective awareness of percepts, thoughts, feelings and behaviour. It performs two functions: monitoring the self and environment and controlling thought and behaviour. Attention is the process of focusing awareness, providing heightened sensitivity to a limited range of experience requiring more extensive information processing. Divided attention means splitting attention between two or more stimuli or tasks. - Consciousness can be measured through self-report question-naires, brain imaging techniques and behavioural observation. - Psychologists also study the flow of consciousness through experience-sampling techniques, such as beeper studies. Even such a private experience as consciousness is in part shaped by cultural practices and beliefs, which influence aspects of subjective awareness, such as the experience of time and the focus on internal psychological states. - Flow is a mental state of consciousness in which a person performing an activity is fully absorbed in a feeling of energised focus, complete involvement and intrinsic enjoyment of the activity. 8.2 Distinguish among the different theoretical principles on consciousness. - Freud distinguished among conscious, preconscious and unconscious processes. Conscious mental processes are at the centre of subjective awareness. Preconscious mental processes are not presently conscious but could be readily brought to consciousness.\ Dynamically unconscious processes --- or the system of mental processes Freud called the unconscious - are thoughts, feelings and memories that are inaccessible to consciousness. They are inaccessible because they have been kept from awareness because they are threatening. Research over several decades has demonstrated that subliminal presentation of stimuli can influence conscious thought and behaviour. Emotional and motivational processes can also be unconscious or implicit. - The cognitive unconscious refers to information-processing mechanisms that occur outside of awareness, notably unconscious procedures or skills and preconscious associational processes such as those that occur in priming experiments. Cognitive theorists have argued that consciousness is a mechanism for flexibly bringing together quasi-independent processing modules that normally operate in relative isolation and for solving problems that automatic processes cannot optimally solve. - Hindbrain and midbrain structures, notably the reticular formation, play a key role in regulating states of wakefulness and arousal.\ Like most psychological functions, consciousness appears to be distributed across a number of neural pathways, involving a circuit running from the reticular formation through the thalamus, from the thalamus to the cortex (particularly the prefrontal cortex) and back down to the thalamus and midbrain regions of the reticular formation. 8.3 Describe the functions of sleep and distinguish among the psychological views of dreaming. - The sleep-wake cycle is a circadian rhythm, a cyclical biological process that evolved around the daily cycles of light and dark.\ Sleep proceeds through a series of stages that cycle throughout the night. Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, named for the bursts of darting eye movements. - Freud distinguished between the manifest content or storyline, and the latent content or underlying meaning of dreams. Freud believed the latent content is always an unconscious wish, although most contemporary psychodynamic psychologists believe that wishes, fears and current concerns can underlie dreams. Cognitive theorists suggest that dreams express thoughts and current concerns in a distinct language with its own rules of transformation.\ Some biological theorists contend that dreams have no meaning; in this view, dreams are cortical interpretations of random neural impulses generated in the midbrain. Others focus on the role of sleep and dreaming in memory consolidation. These three approaches to dreaming are not necessarily incompatible. 8.4 Explain how people might experience altered states of consciousness. - In altered states of consciousness, the usual conscious ways of perceiving, thinking and feeling are changed. Meditation is an altered state in which the person narrows consciousness to a single thought or expands consciousness to focus on stimuli that are usually at the periphery of awareness. Hypnosis, characterised by deep relaxation and suggestibility, appears to be an altered state, but many hypnotic phenomena can be produced under other conditions. In altered states that occur during religious experi-ences, the person feels a sense of oneness with nature, others or the supernatural and experiences a breakdown in the normal boundaries between self and non-self. - Psychoactive substances are drugs that operate on the nervous system to alter patterns of perception, thought, feeling and behaviour. Depressants, the most widely used of which is alcohol, slow down the nervous system. Stimulants (such as nicotine, caffeine, amphetamines and cocaine) increase alertness, energy and autonomic reactivity. Hallucinogens create hallucinations, in which sensations and perceptions occur in the absence of any external stimulation. Cannabis leads to a state of being high - euphoric, giddy, uninhibited or contemplative. Psychoactive substances alter consciousness biologically, by facilitating or inhibiting neural transmission at the synapse, and psychologically, through expectations shaped by cultural beliefs. KEY TERMS - altered states of consciousness Deviations in subjective experience from a normal waking state. - attention The process of focusing consciousness on a limited range of experience. - beeper studies An experience-sampling technique that has provided a more natural window to the flow of consciousness in everyday life. - circadian rhythm biological rhythm that evolved around the daily cycles of light and dark. - cognitive perspective A psychological perspective that focuses on the way people perceive, process and retrieve information. - cognitive unconscious Information-processing mechanisms that operate outside of awareness, such as procedural memory and implicit associative processes, as opposed to the psychodynamic unconscious, which includes information the person is motivated to keep from awareness. - conscious mental processes Processes that involve a subjective awareness of stimuli, feelings or ideas - consciousness The subjective awareness of mental events. daydreaming Turning attention away from external stimuli to internal thoughts and imagined scenarios. - depressants Drugs that slow down the nervous system. - dichotic listening A procedure in which different information is presented to the left and right ears simultaneously. - divided attention The process by which attention is split between two or more sets of stimuli. - evolutionary perspective The viewpoint built on Darwin\'s principle of natural selection that argues that human behavioural proclivities must be understood in the context of their evolutionary and adaptive significance. - experience-sampling A research technique whereby participants report on the contents of consciousness at specified times. - flow A mental state of consciousness in which a person performing an activity is fully absorbed in a feeling of energised focus, complete involvement and intrinsic enjoyment of the activity. - hallucinations Sensory perceptions that distort, or occur without, an external stimulus. - hallucinogens Drugs that produce hallucinations. - hypnosis An altered state of consciousness characterised by deep relaxation and suggestibility, which a person voluntarily enters through the efforts of a hypnotist. - hypnotic susceptibility The capacity to enter deep hypnotic states. - insomnia The inability to sleep. - latent content According to Freud\'s dream theory, the meaning that underlies the symbolism in a dream. - manifest content The obvious storyline of a dream. - meditation A relaxation practice, often associated with religion, characterised by a state of tranquillity. - mindfulness A state of focused awareness of all senses thoughts, feelings and behaviours --- without judgement and without reaction. - non-REM (NREM) sleep States of sleep in which rapid eye movements (REM sleep) are not present. - preconscious mental processes Thoughts that are not conscious but could become conscious at any point, much like information stored in long-term semantic memory. - psychoactive substance Any drug that operates on the nervous system to alter patterns of mental activity. - psychodynamic perspective The perspective initiated by Sigmund Freud that focuses on the dynamic interplay of mental forces. - rapid eye movement (REM) sleep The period of sleep during which darting eye movements occur, autonomic activity increases and patterns of brain activity resemble those observed in waking states. - religious experiences Subjective experiences of being in contact with the divine, which can range from relatively ordinary experiences, such as listening passively to a sermon, to altered states of consciousness in which a person feels at one with nature or the supernatural. - selective attention A process of filtering in and filtering out information such that only more important sensory information passes through to consciousness. - selective inattention The process by which important information is ignored - states of consciousness Different ways of orienting to internal and external events, such as awake states and sleep states. - stimulants Drugs that increase alertness, energy and autonomic reactivity. - subliminal perception Perception of stimuli below the threshold of consciousness. - unconscious mental processes In Freud\'s theory, mental processes that are inaccessible to consciousness, many of which are repressed. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Define consciousness and describe the two main functions it serves. 2. Distinguish between the psychodynamic and cognitive perspectives of consciousness. 3. Describe the neural structures involved in the experience of consciousness. 4. Define rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and contrast it with the four stages of non-REM sleep. 5. Describe the main characteristics of hypnosis. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How do your beliefs, expectations and emotional state affect your experience of pain? 2. What are the effects of extreme sleep deprivation? 3. Hypnosis is not real, or is it? 4. Is drug taking becoming more socially accepted than it used to be? APPLICATION QUESTIONS 1. Read the following dream scenario and attribute each interpretation that follows to a particular psychological perspective. A. This dream has great significance. It reflects Bridget\'s unresolved relationship with her daughter --- she has always felt the need to form a closer bond with her daughter, and would love to spend more time with her in the future. B. This dream is of no significance. It merely reflects the cortical interpretations of random neural signals arising from the midbrain during REM sleep. C. The dream has significance. It represents Bridget\'s concern that life is passing by too quickly and her belief that she should relax more and take life easier. 2. For each of the five scenarios listed below, identify the type of drug that is most likely being abused. A. Amy appears very happy and is full of energy. She moves quickly around the room, sometimes knocking things over as she goes. At one point she jumps up on top of a table because she believes a giant monster is coming to get her. B. Tariq is feeling down and has no energy to get up from his chair. He holds his hands out in front of him. and watches the trail of light that follows as he moves his hands. C. Phuong has not eaten or slept for days because she has no time to stop for such trivial things. Life is too busy, and besides, she is on a mission to find the perfect weapon to stop anybody who tries to end her quest for eternal happiness. D. Shane has trouble remembering where he puts things and sometimes suffers from blackouts. He is no longer able to drive a car because he often becomes disoriented while driving and is concerned that he will not be able to stop the car in time should any pedestrians unexpectedly walk out in front of him. E. Nita feels very happy and relaxed. She is lost in thought, but sometimes yells out random words when strangers walk by her on the street. After a short time, she begins to feel giddy and cannot make sense of the things around her. CHAPTER 9 SUMMARIES 9.1 Define learning. - Learning refers to any enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience. Learning theories assume that experience shapes behaviour, that leurning is adaptive and that uncovering laws of learning requires systematic experimentation. 9.2 Describe the basic principles underlying classical condi-tioning. - Conditioning is a type of learning studied by behaviourists Classical conditioning refers to learning in which an environmen tal stimulus produces a response in an organism. An innate reflex is an unconditioned reflex. The stimulus that produces the response in an unconditioned reflex is called an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). An unconditioned response (UCR) is a response that does not have to be learned. A conditioned response (CR) is a response that has been learned. A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that, through learning, has come to evoke a CR. - Once an organism has leamed to produce a CR, it may respond to stimuli that resemble the CS with a similar response.\ This phenomenon is called stimulus generalisation. Stimulus discrimination is the learned tendency to respond to a very restricted range of stimuli or to only the one used during training Extinction in classical conditioning refers to the process by which a CR is weakened by presentation of the CS without the UCS; that is, the response is extinguished. - Factors that influence classical conditioning include the interstimulus interval (the time between presentation of the CS and the UCS), the individual\'s learning history and prepared learning - Neuroscientists have begun to track down the neural processes involved in classical conditioning. Research on the marine snail Aplysia and on long-term potentiation (ITP) in more complex animals suggests that leaming involves an increase in the strength of synaptic connections through changes in the presynaptic neuron (which more readily releases neurotransmitters), changes in the postsynaptic neuron (which becomes more excitable) and probably an increase in dendritic connections between the two. 9.3 Describe the basic principles underlying operant condi-tioning. - Thorndike\'s law of effect states that an animal\'s tendency to produce a behaviour depends on that behaviour\'s effect on the envi-ronment. Skinner elaborated this idea into the concept of operant conditioning, which means learning to operate on the environment to produce a consequence. An operant is a behaviour that is emitted rather than elicited by the environment. A consequence is said to lead to reinforcement if it increases the probability that a response will recur. A reinforcer is an environmental consequence that occurs after an organism has produced a response, which makes the response more likely to recur. - Positive reinforcement is the process whereby presentation of a stimulus (a reward or pay-off) after a behaviour makes the behaviour more likely to occur again. A positive reinforcer is an environmental consequence that, when presented, strengthens the probability that a response will recur. - Negative reinforcement is the process whereby termination of an aversive stimulus (a negative reinforcer) makes a behaviour more likely to recur. Negative reinforcers are aversive or unpleasant stimuli that strengthen a behaviour by their removal. Whereas the presentation of a positive reinforcer rewards a response, the removal of a negative reinforcer rewards a response. - Reinforcement always increases the probability that a response will recur. In contrast, punishment decreases the probability of a response, through either exposure to an aversive event following a behaviour (positive punishment) or losing or failing to obtain reintorcement previously associated with behaviour (negative pun-ishment). Punishment is commonplace in human affairs but is frequently applied in ways that render it ineffective. - Extinction in operant conditioning occurs if enough conditioning trials pass in which the operant is not followed by its previously learned environmental consequence. - Four phenomena in particular help explain the power of operant conditioning: schedules of reinforcement, discriminative stimuli (stimuli that signal to an organism that particular contingencies of reinforcement are in effect), the behavioural context and characteristics of the learner. - In a continuous reinforcement schedule the environmental consequence is the same each time an animal emits a behaviour. In partial or intermittent schedules of reinforcement, reinforcement does not occur every time the organism emits a particular response. In a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule of reinforcement, an organism receives reinforcement at a fixed rate, according to the number of operant responses emitted. As in the FR schedule,\ an animal on a variable-ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement\ receives a reward for some percentage of responses, but the number of responses required before each reinforcement is unpredictable. In a fixed-interval (FI) schedule of reinforcement. an animal receives reinforcement for its responses only after a fixed amount of time. In a variable-interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement. the animal cannot predict how long that time interval will be. - The operant conditioning of a given behaviour occurs in the context of other environmental contingencies (such as the impact of obtaining one reinforcer on the probability of obtaining another) and broader social and cultural processes. Characteristics of the learner also influence operant conditioning, such as prior behaviours in the animal\'s repertoire, enduring characteristics of the learner and species-specific behaviour. - Operant and classical conditioning share many common features. such as extinction, prepared learning, discrimination, generali-\ sation and the possibility of maladaptive associations. Although\ operant conditioning usually applies to voluntary behaviour, it can also be used in techniques such as biofeedback to alter autonomic responses, which are usually the domain of classical conditioning. In everyday life, operant and classical conditioning are often difficult to disentangle because most learned behaviour involves both. 9.4 Explain the basic premise of cognitive-social theory. - Cognitive-social theory incorporates concepts of conditioning from behaviourism but adds two additional features: a focus on cognition and on social learning. Tolman demonstrated that rats formed cognitive maps or mental images of their environment and that these were responsible for latent learning --- leaming that has occurred but is not currently manifest in behaviour. Many classic learning phenomena have been reinterpreted from a cognitive perspective, including stimulus discrimination and gencralisation. - According to cognitive-social theory, the way an animal construes the environment is as important to learning as actual cavironmental contingencies. Cognitive-social theory proposes that expectations or expectancies of the consequences of behaviours are what render behaviours more or less likely to occur. Locus of control refers to the generalised expectancies people hold about whether or not their own behaviour will bring about the outcomes they prefer. Learned helplessness involves the expectancy that one cannot escape aversive events and the motivational and learning deficits that accrue from it. Explanatory style refers to the way people make sense of bad events. Individuals with a depressive or pessimistic explanatory style see the causes of bad events as internal, stable and global. Expectancies such as locus of control and explanatory style differ across cultures, since cultural belief systems offer people ready-made ways of interpreting events, and people who live in a society share common experiences (such as work and schooling) that lead to shared beliefs and expectancies. - Psychologists have studied several kinds of social learning (learning that takes place as a direct result of social interaction). including observational learning (learning by observing the behaviour of others) and tutelage (direct instruction). Observational learning in which a human (or other animal) learns to reproduce behaviour exhibited by a model is called modelling. In vicarious conditioning, a person; earns the consequences of an action by observing its consequences for someone else. - acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage of learning in which the conditioned response becomes associated with the conditioned stimulus. - antisocial personality disorder A personality disorder marked by irresponsible and socially disruptive behaviour in a variety of areas. - avoidance learning A negative reinforcement procedure in which the behaviour of an organism is reinforced by the prevention of an expected aversive event. - biofeedback A procedure for monitoring autonomic physiological processes and learning to alter them at will. - blocking When a stimulus fails to elicit a conditioned response because it is combined with another stimulus that already elicits the response. - chaining A process of learning in which a sequence of already established behaviours is reinforced step-by-step. - classical conditioning A procedure by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after it is paired with a stimulus that automatically elicits that response; the first type of learning to be studied systematically. - cognitive maps Mental representations of visual space. cognitive-social theory A theory of learning that emphasises the role of thought and social leaming in behaviour. - conditioned response (CR) In classical conditioning, a response that has been learned. - conditioned stimulus (CS) A stimulus that the organism has learned to associate with the unconditioned stimulus. - conditioning A form of learning. - contextual learning Learning not only a simple association between a CS and a UCS but also the context for that association. - continuous reinforcement schedule When the environmental consequences are the same each time an organism emits a behaviour. - discriminative stimulus (SD) A stimulus that signals that particular contingencies of reinforcement are in effect. - escape learning A negative reinforcement procedure in which the behaviour of an organism is reinforced by the cessation of an aversive event that already exists. - expectancies Expectations relevant to desired outcomes. - explanatory style The way people make sense of events or outcomes, particularly aversive ones. - external locus of control The belief that one\'s life is determined by forces outside (external to) oneself. - extinction in classical conditioning. the process by which a conditioned response is weakened by presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, the process by which the connection between an operant and a reinforcer or punishment is similarly broken. - fixed interval (FI) schedule When the organism receives rewards for its responses only after a fixed amount of time. - fixed ratio (FR) schedule When the organism receives reinforcement at a fixed rate, according to the number of responses emitted. - galvanic skin response (GSR) An electrical measure of the amount of sweat on the skin that is produced during states of anxicty or arousal; also called skin conductance or electrodermal activity (EDA). - generalised expectancies Expectancies that influence a broad spectrum of behaviour. - habituation The decreasing strength of a response after repeated presentations of the stimulus. - immune system A system of cells throughout the body that fights disease. - insight In learning theory, the ability to perceive a connection between a problem and its solution; in psychodynamic treatments. the understanding of one\'s own psychological processes. intermittent schedules of reinforcement Operant procedures in which an organism is reinforced only some of the time it emits a behaviour; also called partial schedule of reinforcement. - internal locus of control The belief that one is the master of one\'s fate. - interstimulus interval The duration of time between presentation of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. interval schedules of reinforcement Operant conditioning procedures in which rewards are delivered according to intervals of time. - latent inhibition A phenomenon in classical conditioning in which initial exposure to a neutral stimulus without a UCS slows the process of later learning the CS-UCS association and developing a CR. - latent learning Learning that has occurred but is not currently manifest in behaviour. - law of contiguity Two events will become connected in the mind if they are experienced close together in time. - law of effect Law proposed by Thorndike which states that the tendency of an organism to produce a behaviour depends on the effect the behaviour has on the environment. - law of prediction The CS-UCS association will form such that the presence of the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS law of similarity Objects that resemble each other are likely to become associated. - laws of association First proposed by Aristotic, basic principles used to account for learning and memory, which describe the conditions under which one thought becomes connected, or associated, with another. - learned helplessness The expectancy that one cannot escape from aversive events. - learning Any relatively permanent change in the way an organism responds based on its experience. - locus of control Generalised expectancies people hold about whether or not their own behaviour will bring about the outcomes they seek. - long-term potentiation (I.TP) The tendency of a group of neurons to fire more readily after consistent stimulation from other - neurons - modelling A social learning procedure in which a person learns to reproduce behaviour exhibited by a model. - negative reinforcement The process whereby a behaviour is made more likely because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. - negative reinforcer An aversive or unpleasant stimulus that strengthens a behaviour by its removal. - observational learning Learning that occurs by observing the behaviour of others. - operants Behaviours that are emitted by the organism rather than elicited by the environment. - operant conditioning learning that results when an organism associates a response that occurs spontaneously with a particular environment effect; also called instrumental conditioning. - paradoxical conditioning The conditioning that occurs when the CR is the opposite of the UCR. - partial schedules of reinforcement Operant procedures in which an organism is reinforced only some of the time it emits a behaviour; also called intermittent schedule of reinforcement. - pessimistic explanatory style A tendency to explain bad events that happen in a self-blaming manner, viewing their causes as global and stable. - phobias Irrational fears of specific objects or situations. positive reinforcement The process by which a behaviour is made more likely because of the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. - positive reinforcer A rewarding stimulus that strengthens a behaviour when it is presented. - prepared learning Responses to which an organism is predisposed because they were selected through natural selection. - psychoneuroimmunology (PIN) The study of the interactions among behaviour, the nervous system, the endocrine system and the immune system. - punishment A conditioning process that decreases the probability that a behaviour will occur. - ratio schedules of reinforcement Operint conditioning procedures in which an organism is reinforced after a certain number of responses. - reflex A behaviour that is elicited automatically by an environmental stimulus. - reinforcement A conditioning process that increases the probability that a response will occur. - reinforcer An environmental consequence that occurs after an organism has produced a response and makes the response mise likely to recur. - response contingency The connection that exists between a behaviour and a consequence because the consequence is dependent on the behaviour. - shaping The process of teaching a new behaviour by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response. - social learning Learning in which individuals learn many things from the people around them, with or without reinforcement. - spontaneous recovery The spontaneous re-emergence of a response or an operant that has been extinguished. - stimulus An object or event in the environment that elicits a response in an organism. - stimulus discrimination The tendency for an organism to respond to a very restricted range of stimuli. - stimulus generalisation The tendency for learn behaviour to occur in response to stimuli that were not present during conditioning but that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. - successive approximations A process of rewarding those behaviours that move the subject progressively closer to the desired behaviour. - superstitious behaviour A phenomenon that occurs when the leaner erroneously associates an operant and an environmental event. - tutelage The teaching of concepts or procedures primarily through verbal explanation or instruction. - unconditioned reflex A reflex that occurs naturally, without any prior learning. - unconditioned response (UCR) An organism\'s unlearned automatic response to a stimulus. - unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that produces a reflexive response without any prior learning. - variable-interval (VI) schedule An operant conditioning procedure in which an organism receives a reward for its responses after an amount of time that is not consistent. - variable-ratio (VR) schedules An organism receives a reward for a certain percentage of behaviours that are emitted, but this percentage is not fixed. - vicarious conditioning The process by which an individual learns the consequences of an action by observing its consequences for someone else. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Describe the differences between an unconditioned stimulus\ (UCS) and a conditioned stimulus (CS), and between an unconditioned response (UCR) and a conditioned response (CR). 2. Distinguish between stimulus generalisation and stimulus discrimination. 3. Explain the differences between positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment, using examples to illustrate. 4. Describe the processes involved in extinction and spontaneous recovery in both classical conditioning and operant conditioning. 5. describe how social learning is important in the cognitive social theory of learning. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the common drawbacks associated with the use of punishment? 2. Why do people develop superstitious behaviours? 3. Is it better to have an internal or external locus of control? Summary Chapter 18 18.1 Explain the cultural context of psychopathology. - Psychopathology refers to patterns of thought, feeling or behaviour that disrupt a person\'s sense of wellbeing or social or occupational functioning. - The concept of mental illness varies historically and cross-culturally. Cultures differ in the ways they describe and pattern psychopathology, but \'mentally ill\' is not simply an arbitrary label applied to deviants. 18.2 Define mental health, mental health problems and mental disorders. - Mental health is the capacity of individuals to behave in ways that promote their emotional and social wellbeing. Mental health problems include the wide range of emotional and behavioural abnormalities that affect people throughout their lives. A mental disorder implies the existence of a clinically recognisable set of symptoms and behaviours that cause distress to the individual and impair their ability to function as usual. - Suicide involves a person ending their life and is the leading cause of death for Australians aged between 15 and 44 (ABS, 2017).\ People who die by suicide often feel distraught and cannot see a way forward. Psychologists can help provide crucial mental health support to people during times of crisis and let them know they are not alone in dealing with their life challenges. It is not easy to talk about and suicide and we need to be careful not to use unhelpful language as this can perpetuate the stigma and place blame and shame on the person who died by suicide. 18.3 Differentiate between the contempo