The Mongol Conquests and The Mongol Empire PDF

2 The Mongol Conquests MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING The The Mongols built the largest pastoral...

2 The Mongol Conquests MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING The The Mongols built the largest pastoralist Pax Mongols, a nomadic people from unified land empire in world clan Mongolica the steppe, conquered settled history. Genghis Khan societies across much of Asia. SETTING THE STAGE While the Chinese prospered during the Song Dynasty, a great people far to the north were also gaining strength. The Mongols of the Asian steppe lived their lives on the move. They prided themselves on their skill on horseback, their discipline, their ruthlessness, and their courage in battle. They also wanted the wealth and glory that came with conquering mighty empires. This desire soon exploded into violent conflict that transformed Asia and Europe forever. TAKING NOTES Nomads of the Asian Steppe Following Chronological Order Use a chart to list A vast belt of dry grassland, called the steppe, stretches across the landmass of the series of events Eurasia. The significance of the steppe to neighboring civilizations was twofold. leading to the creation First, it served as a land trade route connecting the East and the West. Second, it of the Mongol Empire. was home to nomadic peoples who frequently swept down on their neighbors to plunder, loot, and conquer. Genghis g Khan Geography of the Steppe There are two main expanses of the Eurasian steppe. unites Mongols The western steppe runs from Central Asia to eastern Europe. It was the original home of some of the ancient invaders you have read about, including the Hittites. The eastern steppe, covering the area of present-day Mongolia, was the first home of the Huns, the Turks, and the Mongols. Very little rain falls on the steppe, but the dry, windswept plain supports short, hardy grasses. Seasonal temperature changes can be dramatic. Temperatures in Mongolia, for example, range from –57°F in winter to 96°F in the summer. Rainfall is somewhat more plentiful and the The Steppe 80°E climate milder in the west than in the east. 0 1,000 Miles For this reason, movements of people have S I B E R I A 40°E 0 2,000 Kilometers historically tended to be toward the west Moscow ASIA EUROPE and the south. ERN S TEPPE Kiev ST WE EASTERN The Nomadic Way of Life Nomadic peo- Aral Karakorum S T E P P E C as Sea ples were pastoralists—that is, they Constantinople Tashkent T pian G O B I DES E R 40°N Beijing herded domesticated animals. They were Sea Samarkand Kashgar CHINA constantly on the move, searching for good Kaifeng pasture to feed their herds. But they did not INDIA wander. Rather, they followed a familiar 330 Chapter 12  seasonal pattern and returned on a regular basis to the same campsites. Keeping claim to land that was not permanently occupied was difficult. Battles frequently arose among nomadic groups over grassland and water rights. Asian nomads practically lived on horseback as they followed their huge herds over the steppe. They depended on their animals for food, clothing, and housing. Their diet consisted of meat and mare’s milk. They wore clothing made of skins and wool, and they lived in portable felt tents called yurts. Steppe nomads traveled together in kinship groups called clans. The members of each clan claimed to be descended from a common ancestor. Different clans sometimes came together when they needed a large force to attack a common enemy or raid their settled neighbors. Steppe Nomads and Settled Societies The differing ways of life of nomadic and settled peoples resulted in constant interaction between them. Often, they engaged in peaceful trade. The nomads exchanged horses, for example, for basic items they lacked, such as grain, metal, cloth, and tea. Nomads were accustomed to scarcity and hardship. They prided themselves on their toughness. However, they were sometimes tempted by the rich land and relative wealth of townspeople and took what they wanted by force. As a result, settled peoples lived in constant fear of raids. Time and again in history, nomadic peoples rode out of the steppe to invade border towns and villages. When a state or empire was strong and organized, it could protect its fron- tier. If the state or empire became divided and weak, the nomads could increase their attacks and gain more plunder. Making Inferences Occasionally, a powerful nomadic group was able to con- How might a strong, organized quer a whole empire and become its rulers. Over genera- empire defend its tions, these nomadic rulers often became part of the Genghis Khan 1162?–1227 frontier? civilization they conquered. Temujin, according to legend, was born with a blood clot in his fist. In The Rise of the Mongols his lifetime, his hands were often For centuries, the Mongol people had roamed the eastern covered with the blood of others. When Temujin was about nine, the steppe in loosely organized clans. It took a military and Tatars, a rival people, poisoned his political genius to unite the Mongols into a force with a father. For a time, he and his family single purpose—conquest. lived in extreme poverty, abandoned Genghis Khan Unites the Mongols Around 1200, a by their clan. When in manhood he fought and defeated the Tatars, he Mongol clan leader named Temujin sought to unify the slaughtered every male taller than a Mongols under his leadership. He fought and defeated his cart axle. rivals one by one. In 1206, Temujin accepted the title While driven by revenge, Genghis Genghis Khan, or “universal ruler” of the Mongol clans. also loved conquest. He once Over the next 21 years, Genghis led the Mongols in remarked to his personal historian: conquering much of Asia. His first goal was China. After Man’s greatest good fortune is to invading the northern Jin Empire in 1211, however, his chase and defeat his enemy, seize his total possessions, leave his attention turned to the Islamic region west of Mongolia. married women weeping and Angered by the murder of Mongol traders and an ambas- wailing, [and] ride his [horse]. sador at the hands of the Muslims, Genghis launched a campaign of terror across Central Asia. The Mongols destroyed one city after another—Utrar, Samarkand, RESEARCH LINKS For more on Genghis Khan, go to classzone.com Bukhara—and slaughtered many inhabitants. By 1225, Central Asia was under Mongol control. Empires in East Asia 331  Genghis the Conqueror Several characteristics lay behind Genghis Khan’s stunning success as a conqueror. First, he was a brilliant organizer. He assembled his Mongol warriors into a mighty fighting force (see below). Following the model of the Chinese military, Genghis grouped his warriors in armies of 10,000. These in turn were organized into 1,000-man brigades, 100-man companies, and 10-man squads. He put his most battle-proven and loyal men in command of these units. Second, Genghis was a gifted strategist. He used various tricks to confuse his enemy. Sometimes, a small Mongol cavalry unit would attack, then pretend to gal- lop away in flight. The enemy usually gave chase. Then the rest of the Mongol army would appear suddenly and slaughter the surprised enemy forces. Finally, Genghis Khan used cruelty as a weapon. He believed in terrifying his enemies into surrender. If a city refused to open its gates to him, he might kill the entire population when he finally captured the place. The terror the Mongols inspired spread ahead of their armies, which led many towns to surrender with- Summarizing What were out a fight. As one Arab historian wrote, “In the countries that have not yet been some of the tactics overrun by them, everyone spends the night afraid that they may appear Genghis Khan used there too.” in war? The Mongol Empire Genghis Khan died in 1227—not from violence, but from illness. His successors continued to expand his empire. In less than 50 years, the Mongols conquered ter- ritory from China to Poland. In so doing, they created the largest unified land empire in history. (See the map on page 334.) Under his armor, each A Mighty Fighting Force cavalry warrior wore silk underwear, which arrows Mongol soldiers were superb horsemen, having often did not pierce. The spent all their lives in the saddle. Annual game warriors could use the silk to help pull the arrow roundups gave young men the chance to practice cleanly out of a wound. skills they would use in battle and gave their leaders the opportunity to spot promising warriors. When on the move, each soldier was accompanied by three extra horses. By changing mounts, soldiers could stay in the saddle for up to ten days and nights at a time. When charging toward a target, they covered as much as 120 miles a day. If food was scarce, a Mongol soldier might make a small gash in the neck of one of his horses and sustain himself by drinking the blood. A key to Mongol horsemanship was the stirrup, which was invented on the steppe in the second century B.C. Stirrups enabled a mounted warrior to stand, turn, and shoot arrows behind him. The cavalry warrior’s weapons included leather armor, a lance, a dagger, a bow and arrows, and his stout, sturdy horse. 332 Chapter 12  The Khanates After Genghis’s death, his sons and grandsons continued the campaign of conquest. Armies under their leadership drove south, east, and west out of inner Asia. They completed their conquest of northern China and invaded Korea. They leveled the Russian city of Kiev and reached the banks of the Adriatic Sea. The cities of Venice and Vienna were within their grasp. However, in the 1250s the Mongols halted their westward campaign and turned their attention to Persia. By 1260, the Mongols had divided their huge empire into four regions, or khanates. (See the map on page 334.) These were the Khanate of the Great Khan (Mongolia and China), the Khanate of Chagatai (Central Asia), the Ilkhanate (Persia), and the Khanate of the Golden Horde (Russia). A descendant of Genghis ruled each khanate. The Mongols as Rulers Many of the areas invaded by the Mongols never recovered. The populations of some cities were wiped out. In addition, the Mongols destroyed ancient irrigation systems in areas such as the Tigris and Euphrates val- leys. Thus, the land could no longer support resettlement. While ferocious in war, the Mongols were quite tolerant in peace. They rarely imposed their beliefs or way of life on those they conquered. Over time, some Mongol rulers even adopted aspects of the culture of the people they ruled. The Ilkhans and the Golden Horde, for example, became Muslims. Growing cultural differences among the khanates contributed to the eventual splitting up of the empire. The Mongol Peace From the mid-1200s to the mid-1300s, the Mongols imposed stability and law and order across much of Eurasia. This period is sometimes called the Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace. The Mongols guaranteed safe passage for trade caravans, travelers, and missionaries from one end of the empire to another. Mongol women took primary responsibility A Mongol army was like a moving city. The for the needs of the camp, milked the cavalry of 10,000 was accompanied by an even livestock, and treated the wounded. Some greater number of family members and by tens also fought as warriors. of thousands of horses and livestock. When attacking, however, the warriors would leave the caravan, separate into different groups, and attack their enemy on multiple fronts. The khan and other leaders had great mobile yurts pulled by teams of oxen. SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual Sources Making Inferences Name at least three things that allowed the Mongol army to be self-sufficient. 333  le °N irc cC 60 ti Arc The Mongol Empire, 1294 Border of Mongol Empire Campaigns of Genghis Khan Campaigns of his successors Vienna Venice Route of Marco Polo Moscow EUROPE Am Great Wall °N RUSSIAN ur 40 Kiev PRINCIPALITIES R. R. D an u b a Volg KHANATE e I L. Baikal Sea R. STEPPE KHANATE OF THE of JA PA N rty OF THE GREAT KHAN sh ASIA Karakorum Japan R Constantinople GOLDEN HORDE. B lac (KIPCHAK) kS KOREA M ea GOBI ed L. Balkhash DESERT Beijing Ca ite Aral rr Sea Yellow spia n S e a E a ne Balasaghun Sea 20° an CHAGATAI Se Tashkent K H A N A T E °N Ti a Bukhara Kaifeng East gris ow g He Kashgar 20 R.) China R. Samarkand CH INA a Hangzhou n Baghdad H u el l Sea 140 (Y iang Eu TIBET gJ PACIFIC °E ph R.) (Ya hian tze ra 40° E Kabul OCEAN tes ILKHANATE ng C 80° E R (PERSIA) Red S. ARABIA Lhasa Pers dia H IM 60° E Ph R. ia ea 0 1,000 Miles AL A YA S To In G n ili u lf us an G pp nd I g 0 2,000 Kilometers I N D I A es R. South in es Pagan VIETNAM China GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps MIEN Sea M Vijaya 120° 100° E Bay of e k 1. Region What khanate controlled Russia? Persia? Korea? Bengal E on gR 2. Region What parts of Asia did the Mongols fail to control? Trade between Europe and Asia had never been more active. Ideas and inventions traveled along with the trade goods. Many Chinese innovations, such as gunpowder, reached Europe during this period. Other things spread along with the goods and the ideas. Some historians speculate that the epidemic of bubonic plague that devastated Europe during the 1300s was first spread by the Mongols. (See Chapter 14.) The disease might have traveled along trade routes or have been passed to others by infected Mongol troops. For a brief period of history, the nomadic Mongols were the lords of city-based civilizations across Asia, including China. As you will read in Section 3, China continued to thrive under Mongol rule. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. pastoralist clan Genghis Khan Pax Mongolica USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which of the listed events do 3. In what ways did steppe 6. MAKING INFERENCES What characteristics of their culture you think is the most nomads and the people of do you think contributed to the Mongols’ military important? Why? neighboring settled societies success? Explain your response. interact? 7. ANALYZING MOTIVES What do you think drove Genghis Genghis g Khan 4. Why was terror an important Khan to conquer a great empire? Explain your answer. unites weapon for Genghis Khan? 8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS “The Mongols Mongols 5. What happened to the Mongol were great conquerors but poor rulers.” Do you agree Empire in the years after with this statement? Why or why not? Genghis Khan’s death? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY CULTURAL INTERACTION Write a brief essay discussing the impact of interaction between the Mongols and the various cultures that they conquered. INTERNET ACTIVITY Today, most Mongols live in the country of Mongolia. Use the Internet to INTERNET KEYWORD find information on Mongolian ways of life. Then create an illustrated Mongolia report comparing ways of life today and in Genghis Khan’s time. 334 Chapter 12  3 The Mongol Empire MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES CULTURAL INTERACTION The influence of Chinese ideas Kublai Khan Marco Polo As emperor of China, Kublai on Western civilization began Khan encouraged foreign trade. with the Mongols’ encourage- ment of trade. SETTING THE STAGE Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, assumed the title Great Khan in 1260. In theory, the Great Khan ruled the entire Mongol Empire. In reality, the empire had split into four khanates. Other descendants of Genghis ruled Central Asia, Persia, and Russia as semi-independent states. So, Kublai focused instead on extending the power and range of his own khanate, which already included Mongolia, Korea, Tibet, and northern China. To begin, however, he had to fulfill the goal of his grandfather to conquer all of China. Kublai Khan Becomes Emperor TAKING NOTES Recognizing Effects The Chinese held off Kublai’s attacks for several years. However, his armies Use a web diagram to finally overwhelmed them in 1279. Throughout China’s long history, the Chinese show the impact of feared and fought off invasions by northern nomads. China sometimes lost terri- Kublai Khan on tory to nomadic groups, but no foreigner had ever ruled the whole country. With East Asia. Kublai’s victory, that changed. Beginning a New Dynasty As China’s new emperor, Kublai Khan founded a new dynasty called the Yuan (yoo AHN) Dynasty. It lasted less than a century, until 1368, when it was overthrown. However, the Yuan era was an important Kublai Khan period in Chinese history for several reasons. First, Kublai Khan united China for the first time in more than 300 years. For this he is considered one of China’s great emperors. Second, the control imposed by the Mongols across all of Asia opened China to greater foreign contacts and trade. Finally, Kublai and his successors tolerated Chinese culture and made few changes to the system of government. Unlike his Mongol ancestors, Kublai abandoned the Mongolian steppes for China. He did not share his ancestors’ dislike of the settled life. On the contrary, he rather enjoyed living in the luxurious manner of a Chinese emperor. He main- tained a beautiful summer palace at Shangdu, on the border between Mongolia and China. He also built a new square-walled capital at the site of modern Beijing. Kublai built this palace to enhance his prestige, but his new capital meant something more. Previously, the Great Khans had ruled their empire from Mongolia. Moving the capital from Mongolia to China was a sign that Kublai intended to make his mark as emperor of China. Failure to Conquer Japan After conquering China, Kublai Khan tried to extend his rule to Japan. In 1274 and again in 1281, the Great Khan sent huge fleets Empires in East Asia 335 ▲ This detail from a 13th-century against Japan. The Mongols forced Koreans to build, sail, and provide provisions Japanese scroll for the boats, a costly task that almost ruined Korea. Both times the Japanese depicts Japanese turned back the Mongol fleets. warriors fighting off The second fleet carried 150,000 Mongol, Chinese, and Korean warriors—the a Mongol warship. largest seaborne invasion force in history until World War II. After 53 days, Japanese warriors had fought the invaders to a standstill. Then, on the following day, the sky darkened and a typhoon swept furiously across the Sea of Japan. Mongol ships were upended, swamped, and dashed to bits against the rocky shore, despite their sailors’ attempts to escape onto the open sea. For centuries afterward, the Japanese spoke reverently of the kamikaze, or “divine wind,” that had saved Japan. Mongol Rule in China Early in Kublai Khan’s reign, one of his Chinese advisers told him, “I have heard that one can conquer the empire on horseback, but one cannot govern it on horse- back.” This advice illustrates the problems Kublai faced as emperor. Mongol ways would not work in a sophisticated civilization like China’s. Besides, the number of Mongols in China was few compared to the huge native population. Kublai would need to make use of non-Mongol officials to help him rule successfully. The Mongols and the Chinese The Mongol rulers had little in common with their Chinese subjects. Because of their differences, the Mongols kept their sepa- rate identity. Mongols lived apart from the Chinese and obeyed different laws. They kept the Chinese out of high government offices, although they retained as many Chinese officials as possible to serve on the local level. Most of the highest Making government posts went to Mongols or to foreigners. The Mongols believed that Inferences foreigners were more trustworthy since they had no local loyalties. How might the Despite his differences with the Chinese, Kublai Khan was an able leader. He Chinese have felt restored the Grand Canal and extended it 135 miles north to Beijing. Along its about their lack of power in Kublai’s banks he built a paved highway that ran some 1,100 miles, from Hangzhou to government? Beijing. These land and water routes ensured the north a steady supply of grain and other goods from the southern heartland. Foreign Trade Foreign trade increased under Kublai Khan. This was largely due to the Mongol Peace, which made the caravan routes across Central Asia safe for trade and travel. Traders transported Chinese silk and porcelain, which were greatly valued in Europe and western Asia, over the Silk Roads and other routes. These traders also carried with them such Chinese products and inventions as printing, gunpowder, the compass, paper currency, and playing cards. 336 Chapter 12  Kublai further encouraged trade by inviting foreign merchants to visit China. Most of them were Muslims from India, Central Asia, and Persia. Many European traders and travelers, including Kublai Khan 1215–1294 Christian missionaries, also reached China. As ruler of both China and Marco Polo at the Mongol Court The most the Mongol Empire, Kublai famous European to visit China in these years was a Khan straddled two worlds. young Venetian trader, Marco Polo. He traveled by He built luxurious palaces, dressed as a Chinese caravan on the Silk Roads with his father and uncle, emperor, and supported arriving at Kublai Khan’s court around 1275. Polo the work of Chinese artists. had learned several Asian languages in his travels, However, he remained a and Kublai Khan sent him to various Chinese cities Mongol warrior at heart. on government missions. Polo served the Great The Great Khan is said to Khan well for 17 years. In 1292, the Polos left China have planted a plot of grass from the steppe in Analyzing Motives the gardens at Beijing to remind himself of his Why do you and made the long journey back to Venice. home. He also loved to hunt and enclosed a think Kublai Khan Later, during a war against Venice’s rival city, large hunting ground at his palace at Shangdu. employed Marco Genoa, Marco Polo was captured and imprisoned. Polo? In prison he had time to tell the full story of his Marco Polo 1254?–1324 travels and adventures. To his awed listeners, he The man who described spoke of China’s fabulous cities, its fantastic Kublai Khan to Europeans left behind very little wealth, and the strange things he had seen there. He information about himself. mentioned the burning of “black stones” (coal) in According to Polo, Kublai Chinese homes. (Coal as a fuel was little known in recognized his “merit and Europe.) He also recorded the practical workings of worth” and sent him on Kublai’s government and aspects of Chinese life. special missions around the empire. His impressions of Here is his description of trade in Beijing: China became the basis of his book, but he described PRIMARY SOURCE few actual events about his life. [M]ore precious and costly wares are imported into Since his book first appeared, people have Khan-balik [Beijing] than into any other city in the debated whether Polo even visited China. He is world.... All the treasures that come from India— not mentioned in Chinese accounts of this time. precious stones, pearls, and other rarities—are brought His tales also fail to mention such common here. So too are the choicest and costliest products of features of China as tea, acupuncture, or foot Cathay [China] itself and every other province. binding. On his deathbed, Polo was asked if his MARCO POLO, The Travels of Marco Polo travel stories were true. He replied that he had told barely half of what he had seen. A fellow prisoner gathered Polo’s stories into a book. It was an instant success in Europe, but RESEARCH LINKS For more on Kublai Khan most readers did not believe a word of it. They and Marco Polo, go to classzone.com thought Polo’s account was a marvelous collection of tall tales. It was clear to Marco Polo, however, that the civilization he had visited was the greatest in the world. The End of Mongol Rule During the last years of Kublai Khan’s reign, weaknesses began to appear in Mongol rule. In an attempt to further expand his empire, Kublai sent several expe- ditions into Southeast Asia. His armies and navies suffered many humiliating defeats at a huge expense of lives and equipment. Heavy spending on fruitless wars, on public works, and on the luxuries of the Yuan court burdened the treasury and created resentment among the overtaxed Chinese. This presented problems that Kublai’s less able successors could not resolve. Empires in East Asia 337  850 1215 1275 Gunpowder Genghis Kahn invades Marco Polo invented northern China. reaches China. SUI TANG SONG SOUTHERN SONG YUAN 500 A.D. 800 A.D. 1100 A.D. 1400 A.D. 627 751 1126 1260 Tang Taizong Chinese lose Song Dynasty Kublai becomes emperor. Battle of Talas. retreats to becomes 690 1024 1040 south. Great Kahn. Empress Wu Zhao Government issues Movable assumes throne. paper money. type invented Yuan Dynasty Overthrown Kublai Khan died in 1294. After his death, the Yuan Dynasty began to fade. Family members continually argued over who would rule. In one eight-year period, four different khans took the throne. Rebellions broke out in many parts of China in the 1300s. The Chinese had long resented their Mongol rulers, and the Mongol humiliation of the Chinese only increased under Kublai Khan’s successors. The rebellions were also fueled by years of famine, flood, and disease, along with growing economic problems and official cor- ruption. In 1368, Chinese rebels finally overthrew the Mongols. The rebel leader Analyzing Causes founded a new dynasty, the Ming, which you will read about in Chapter 19. What factors contributed to the Decline of the Mongol Empire By the time of the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, decline and fall of the entire Mongol Empire had disintegrated. The government of the Ilkhanate in the Yuan Dynasty? Persia fell apart in the 1330s. The Chagatai khans ruled Central Asia until the 1370s. Only the Golden Horde in Russia stayed in power. The Golden Horde ruled Russia for 250 years. As you read in Chapter 11, Ivan III finally led Russia to independence from Mongol rule in 1480. The rise and fall of Mongol rule affected civilizations from eastern Europe to China. Kublai Khan had tried to extend this influence to Japan but had failed. However, several centuries earlier, the Japanese had embraced the influence of an outside culture—China. This development is described in Section 4. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Kublai Khan Marco Polo USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Select one of the entries. 3. Why did the Mongols employ 6. EVALUATING DECISIONS Judging from the events of the Did this event make China foreigners rather than Chinese Yuan Dynasty, do you think the Mongol policies toward stronger or weaker? in high government offices? the Chinese were effective? Explain your answer. 4. How did Europeans view 7. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS What impact did the Mongol Marco Polo’s account of his Peace have on interaction between East and West? time in China? 8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you think that Kublai Khan 5. What happened to the Yuan Kublai Khan was a successful ruler? Why or why not? Dynasty after Kublai Khan’s 9. WRITING ACTIVITY CULTURAL INTERACTION Adopt the role death? of a traveler in Mongol China. Write a letter to friends explaining how the Chinese way of life has influenced the Mongol conquerors. CONNECT TO TODAY WRITING A SUMMARY Some people consider Marco Polo to be the first travel writer. Locate modern travel writing on China. Select and read descriptions of major cities, such as Beijing. Using photographs and sketches, create an illustrated summary of the main points included in the descriptions. 338 Chapter 12