Behavioral Science Key Concepts Summary PDF

Behavioral Sciences Key Concepts Summary LECTURE 1 TITLE Introduction to Behavioral Sciences Notes Term Definition/ Description How can it be treated?...

Behavioral Sciences Key Concepts Summary LECTURE 1 TITLE Introduction to Behavioral Sciences Notes Term Definition/ Description How can it be treated? Body: Mental functions: Complex regional pain syndrome Decrease pain, swelling, & Enhance resilience other physical symptoms Increase motivation Increase muscle motility Keep socialites LECTURE 2 TITLE Bioethics Term Definition/ Description The study of the moral dimensions – including moral vision, decisions, Bioethics conduct, and policies – of the life sciences and health care, employing a variety of ethical methodologies in an interdisciplinary setting. A person’s capacity to „feel” those situations and decisions, when there is Ethical sensitivity a difficult moral choice, when there are ethically relevant courses of action, when ethical deliberation is needed. Imaginative rehearsal in the mind” (John Dewey) of alternative courses of Ethical deliberation action when confronted with a difficult moral choice. Ethical justification: when we choose one course of action, and give Ethical justification reasons (patient benefit, truthfulness, informed consent etc.) - for our choice, defending our actions by citing moral and professional principles. Ethos Ancient Greek word, habit, decency, tradition Ethics Our reflective relation to morality: the „science of morality” Descriptive ethics (moral sociology, moral psychology) How things are? Normative ethics: How things should be? Fields of Ethics Metaethics: investigates the basic presumptions of ethics, analyses ethical concepts etc. Applied ethics: focusing on a given area of conduct (media ethics, business ethics, medical ethics, bioethics) The principle of „Do no harm” requires this. Telling this info would make the patient situation worse (hopeless, depressive, suicide, etc.) Can we as doctors justify a white lie! Uncertainty: Doctors cannot be sure in prognosis; medical knowledge Why YES? is developing rapidly, sometimes miraculous recoveries happen. Patients need and expect hope from the doctor; Doctors should be responsive to this call. Being fully informed is a human right of the patient originating from her self-determination. Against white lie (the deontological Providing all information is a clear obligation for doctors. reasons) Numerous ethical codes and guidelines are framed according to this conception since the 1980’s.  LECTURE 3 TITLE Medical Anthropology Term Definition/ Description Culture refers to the language and accumulated knowledge, beliefs, assumptions, and values that are passed between individuals, groups, and generations; a system of meanings and symbols that shape how people see the world and their place in it and give meaning to personal and collective experience; or, more simply, as the knowledge we must possess to function adequately in society. What is Culture Culture refers primarily to the shared patterns of belief, feeling, and adaptation which people carry in their minds as guides for conduct and the definition of reality. Besides concerning all aspects of human life— social relationships, economics, and religion, for example—culture as a totality contains patterns of interconnections and interdependences. White Coat Four principal objects depict the Stethoscope doctor Head mirror Black bag Operating room Origins of the above depictions Scientific (microbiological) lab. Hospital Life (against black = death) Purity: innocence (no harm, no malice) Meaning of above depictions Unaroused sexuality (bridal gown) Superhuman power Candor, candidus, impartial truth-telling Two behavioral changes as a result Access to patient’s body of the above depictions From the home to an institution The mechanics views the body as a machine that, every now and then, requires repair. He does not need to know much about the mental condition of his patients, and he does not bother much why he does this or that. He has learned that one intervention will be able to deal with problem „A”, and another intervention will successfully cure problem „B”. Medical practitioner may decide The intellectual healer follows a different course. He wants to know why what they want to be: mechanics or biomedicine has arrived at its current notions of the origin and nature of intellectuals disease, and at therapeutic interventions derived from them. He wants to know what the essential difference is between different health care traditions, and he wishes to have arguments (and be able to voice these arguments) as to why he prefers one approach over another. The intellectual healer may realize that one type of health care is good for a certain type of clientele, while the mental set-up of another portion of his clientele requires a different therapeutic approach. LECTURE 4 TITLE Medical Sociology (Conceptual Framework) Term Definition/ Description Phenomenon of one of the Social Sciences, namely Sociology Sociology The systematic study of human society The special point of view of sociology that sees general patterns of society Sociological perspective: in the lives of particular people The science which attempts the interpretative understanding of social Definition of Sociology action in order thereby to arrive at a casual explanation of it source and effects. When do we begin to see the world We begin to see the world sociologically by realizing how the general sociologically? categories into which we fall shape our particular life experiences. 1. Conceptualization Specifying the meaning of the concepts(variables) to be studied A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from Hypothesis a more general proposition Aims to find patterns of regularity for social life 2. Operationalization Specifying the exact operations involvedinmeasuringa variable 3. Observations (data collection) Research Methods 4. Data Processing 5. Analysis The non-numerical examination and interpretation of observations, for Qualitative Analysis the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships. The numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the Quantitative Analysis purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations reflect. The quality of measurement method that suggests that the same data Measurement Reliability would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon a term describing a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is Measurement Validity intended to measure LECTURE 4 TITLE Medical Sociology (Key Concepts) Term Definition/ Description is the study of social „causes” and „consequences” of health and illness Medical Sociology is the study of society in so far as it concerns health and disease A. SOCIOLOGY OFMEDICINE Fields of Medical Sociology B. SOCIOLOGY INMEDICINE C. SOCIOLOGY OF HEALTH (focuses on prevention) A. Social Class B. Ethnicity C. Gender D. Aga Social Patterning of Health E. Place F. Social Support G. Life events H. Life Support  Overall health status is influenced by: I. Income Social Economic Position J. Education K. Occupation L. Social Class M. Gender N. Ethnicity O. Age Social Patterning of Health P. Place Q. Social Support R. Life Events S. Life course Gender relates to culturally appropriate behavior of men and women, Gender whereas sex refers to biological differences A. Medicalization B. Illness Behavior C. Stigma D. Embodiment E. Chronic Illness and Disability F. Illness Narratives Experience of Illness G. Risk H. The Sick Role I. Practitioner-Client J. Relationship K. Compliance and Adherence L. Quality of Life M. Dying Trajectories N. Medical Model O. Social Constructionism P. Lay Knowledge Health, knowledge and Practice Q. Reproduction R. Medical Technologies S. Genitalization T. Surveillance and Health Promotion Mortality The fact and cause of death Morbidity Sickness illness of which the development is strongly associated with the general Civilization Illness lifestyle in the so called civilized countries Incidence The number of new cases of a disease during a specified period of time Prevalence The number of existing cases of a disease at a specific point in time The average number of years an individual of a given age is expected to Life Expectancy live if current mortality rates continue A. Professions and Professionalization B. Professional Socialization C. Medical Autonomy and Medical Dominance Health, Work and the Division of D. Medical Pluralism Labor E. Negotiated Order F. Emotional Labour G. Informal Care  LECTURE 5 TITLE Basics of Medical Psychology I. Human Development Term Definition/ Description The scientific study of changes that occur in human beings over the course of their Developmental Psychology life Nature-nurture debate Genetic Determinism Cultural Determinism An approach to questions about social cognition, or how one understands other Interactional Theory people, that focuses on bodily behaviors and environmental contexts rather than on mental processes. A time or stage in a person's development when they are more responsive to Sensitive Periods certain stimuli and quicker to learn particular skills. A. Reflexes B. Vision C. Hearing Capacities of the Newborn D. Taste and smell E. Motor skills F. Learning and memory Erik Erikson and his collaborator and wife, Joan Erikson, conceptualized eight stages of psychosocial development that they theorized healthy individuals pass Stages of Development through as they develop from infancy to adulthood. The first stage is called "Trust vs. Mistrust" takes place in infancy. Human infants prefer to look at physically attractive human faces when they are Facial Preference paired with physically less attractive human faces Motherese: A term used in the study of CHILD LANGUAGE ACQUISITION for the way mothers talk to their young children. Its features include simplified grammar, Baby talk exaggerated speech melody, diminutive forms of words such as doggie, and a highly repetitive style. Infants can discriminate between tastes Prefer sweet-tasting liquids over … o A relaxed, a slight smile, sometimes lip-licking Sour taste o Pursued lips and wrinkled nose Bitter taste o Opens its mouth, with the corners turned down, sticks out its tongue Taste Preferences (disgust) Turn their heads toward a sweet smell o Heart rate and respiration – slow down Turn their heads away from noxious odors o Heart rate and respiration – accelerate Able to discriminate among subtle differences in smells o Mother’s milk Early Learning Prefer heartbeat sounds, speech sounds, human voice and female voice Habituation is a psychological learning process wherein there is a decrease in response to a stimulus after being repeatedly exposed to it. This concept states that Habituation an animal or a human may learn to ignore a stimulus because of repeated exposure to it.  Refers to the fast recovery of a response that has undergone habituation, typically Dishabituation as a result of the presentation of a novel, strong or sometimes noxious stimulus. Babies experience the world through their senses. They cannot ’think’ because they live in the moment with no abstract concepts. However they can exhibit intelligent behavior – e.g. pulling a blanket to Sensorimotor (birth get a toy that is out of reach – 2 years) Before eight months, infants do not understand object permanence – the awareness which are out of sight still exist. Infants ’think’ by doing They do not think symbolically Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others (e.g. hide and seek) Preoperational (2 – Classifies objects by a single feature; for example, groups together all the 7 years) red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of color Piaget’s State Theory Major change from the sensorimotor stage is the capacity to imagine things This is reflected in play, when a stick can become a sword or a magic wand. Can think logically about objects and events Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9) Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in series Concrete along a single dimension, such as size operational (7-11 In this stage, children develop the capacity to see things from another years) person’s perspective. Thinking becomes logical but is not yet abstract Perspectives of others can be understood Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systematically Thinking becomes multi-dimensional, children become able to consider Formal operational various possibilities, rather just the most obvious solution to a problem (11 years and up) Metacognition – the capacity to think about thinking; Introspection – the capacity to think about emotions Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems Before eight months, infants do not understand object permanence – the Object Permanence awareness which are out of sight still exist Conservation Conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9) Metacognition the capacity to think about thinking Introspection the capacity to think about emotions Separation Anxiety No examination is possible without crying –Separation anxiety Freud’s Psychosexual Developmental State Theory Oral Stage Birth -1 year Anal Stage 1 – 3 years Phallic Stage 3 – 6 years Latency Stage 6 – 12 years Genital Stage Puberty and later Fixation is a concept (in human psychology) originated by Sigmund Freud (1905) to denote the persistence of anachronistic sexual traits. The term subsequently Fixation came to denote object relationships with and attachments to people or things in general persisting from childhood into adult life. Basic Trust A baby’s mental and physical health is a direct function of maternal care Developmental tasks: –To become emotionally independent from their parents –To set up emotional relationships outside the family –To choose sexual partner –To choose an occupation Adolescence –To develop the social role and identity of the adult A period of storms and conflicts Separation ambivalence can be observed in the hospital Find it difficult to bear the regression caused by the disease They mood and adaptive capabilities vary  Approximate Psychosocial Significant Existential Virtues Examples Age crisis relationship questions Infancy Basic trust vs. Can I trust Feeding, Hope Mother mistrust the world? abandonment 0-23 months Early Toilet Autonomy vs. childhood Is it okay training, Will shame and Parents to be me? clothing 2–4 years doubt themselves Preschool Is it okay Exploring, age Initiative vs. for me to Purpose Family using tools or guilt do, move, 4–5 years making art and act? Erikson’s model of Can I Psychosocial development make it in School age Industry vs. Neighbors, the world School, Competence 5–12 years inferiority school of people sports and things? Adolescence Who am I? Identity vs. Peers, role Social Fidelity Who can I 13–19 years role confusion model relationships be? Early adulthood Intimacy vs. Friends, Can I Romantic Love isolation partners love? relationships 20–39 years Adulthood Can I Generativity Household, Work, Care make my 40–64 years vs. stagnation workmates parenthood life count? Maturity Is it okay Ego integrity Mankind, my Reflection on Wisdom to have 65-death vs. despair kind life been me? Identity Crisis  LECTURE 6 TITLE Basics of Medical Psychology II. Motivation and Emotions Term Definition/ Description Emphasizes the role of internal factors – motivation reflects basic What controls Drive Theories physiological needs motivation Incentive Theory Emphasizes the role of external events or objects of desire. Homeostasis Maintaining balance of our internal environment Set point the value that the system tries to maintain Rewards activate the same brain system: the dopamine system Brain’s dopamine system Dispose individuals to want to repeat the event that caused the dopamine infusion (regardless of pleasure) The fact or condition of being addicted to a substance or activity. Addiction Powerful motivation! Compulsive and destructive. Pathological ‘wanting When you take medications or drugs your body begins to get used to the Tolerance drug.... This reduced effect of the drug is tolerance - your body is getting used to the drug causing a reduction in its effectiveness. The onset of symptoms, both physical and mental, when a substance is Withdrawal reduced or not given to the body. A subjective response to an external stimulus that reflects the internal “homeostasis”. Any stimulus capable of ameliorating the internal Alliesthesia homeostasis will be perceived as pleasant; any stimulus that alters the internal homeostasis would be perceived as unpleasant or painful. Weight gain occurs because the intake of energy is greater than the energy expended The balance is influenced by a complex system of physiological, psychological and social factors It is not just a medical condition… Obesity Restrict oneself to small amounts or special kinds of food in order to lose weight. Dieting Biological reactions: Food deprivation –leads to subsequent overeating and –decreases metabolic rate Desire not to gain weight; self-imposed weight loss They think they look fat; denying problems Anorexia (Lack of menstruation) Often intensive exercising More likely in women (14-40) Normal weight (disorder is hidden) Bulimia More frequent than anorexia: „25% of college-aged women engage in binging and purging as a weight-management technique”  It is not a survival motive At puberty – hormonal changes In other species, sexual arousal is closely related to variations in hormonal levels – In humans: the role of the hormones is much less. MEN: After chemical castration many of them continue to lead a normal sex life Sexual Motivation Testosterone level has no effect on ability to have an erection, but increases desire (more sexual fantasies) Major determinants of sexual desire are the emotional factors WOMEN: Sexual desire is even less dependent on hormones: following menopause, sexual desire usually increases degree of attraction to persons of the other sex and/or to persons of the Sexual Orientation same sex Stimulus >> Physiological arousal specific to an emotion >> subjective James-Lange Emotion Theory experience of the emotion Perception of body changes = subjective experience of emotion An interpretation of the personal meaning of certain circumstances that Cognitive Appraisal results in an emotion (Lazarus, Schachter-Singer) Emotion Components Experiment: get participants smile without knowing it: holding a pen a.in their teeth, Facial Feedback Hypothesis b.in their lips Group a. rated the same cartoons as funnier than group b. Facial expressions contribute to our experience of emotions LECTURE 7 TITLE Basics of Medical Psychology III. Learning and Memory Term Definition/ Description A relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of Learning experience Non-associative Learning Learning about a single stimulus A decreased behavioral response to an innocuous stimulus Habituation –e.g. sound of a horn An increase in a behavioral response to an intense (noxious or fearful) Sensitization stimulus –e.g. sound of a horn in a dark alley Associative Learning Involves learning relationships among events  Learning the relationship between events; A learning procedure in which Classical Conditioning associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is one that unconditionally, naturally, Unconditional stimulus and automatically triggers a response. For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately feel very hungry. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus. Unconditional response For example, if the smell of food is the unconditioned stimulus, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response. A neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when Neutral stimulus used together with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after Conditioned stimulus becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned An automatic response established by training to an ordinarily neutral Conditioned response stimulus. Drug tolerance The decreased effect of a drug when it is taken repeatedly A reaction to similarities – to show the same response to a stimulus that is Response generalization similar to the original CS A reaction to differences – through differential reinforcement. Stimulus discrimination Conditioning participants to discriminate between two similar stimuli Conditioned stimulus (CS) is used as the unconditioned stimulus (US) in a new conditioning procedure In humans most conditioned responses are established through this Second-order conditioning process The original US is usually a biologically significant stimulus (e.g. food, pain, nausea) After just one bad experience. The CS-US interval is usually very long. Conditioned taste aversion occurs when an animal associates the taste of Learned taste aversion a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance. Generally, taste aversion is developed after ingestion of food that causes nausea, sickness, or vomiting. Instrumental conditioning Learning the relationship between responses and their outcomes Positive reinforcement Add something to increase behavior Negative reinforcement Remove something to increase behavior Positive Punishment Add something to decrease behavior Negative punishment Remove something to decrease behavior Reinforce slightly different behaviors in small steps Shaping –Sequential reinforcement –To build complex behavior patterns It refers to a learning whereby an organism learns to escape a harmful Escape learning stimulus by using a response referred to as an instrumental or operant response. Avoidance learning is the process by which an individual learns a Avoidance Learning behavior or response to avoid a stressful or unpleasant situation. The behavior is to avoid, or to remove oneself from, the situation. Observational learning We learn many things without immediately being reinforced for the  behavior. Copy the behavior of others, whose behavior you observed to be successful. Encoding stage (put into memory) Storage stage (maintain in memory) Retrieval stage (recover from memory) Working memory (short term The part of short-term memory which is concerned with immediate memory) conscious perceptual and linguistic processing. Rehearsal in educational psychology refers to the "cognitive process in Rehearsal which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it". The more we elaborate the items, the more we can subsequently recall or Elaboration recognize them. The more connections between items, the larger the number of retrieval possibilities Long-term memory (LTM) is the stage of the dual memory model Long-term memory proposed by the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model, and informative knowledge can be stored for long periods of time. Explicit memory (also called "declarative memory") is one of the two major subdivisions of long-term memory. (The other is implicit memory.) Explicit memory Explicit memory requires conscious thought—such as recalling who came to dinner last night or naming animals that live in the rainforest. Implicit memory is one of the two main types of long-term human memory. It is acquired and used unconsciously, and can affect thoughts Implicit memory and behaviors. One of its most common forms is procedural memory, which helps people performing certain tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences. Sensory information is stored in sensory memory just long enough to be transferred to short-term memory. Humans have five main senses: sight, Sensory memory hearing, taste, smell, touch. Sensory memory (SM) allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased. The phonological loop is one of the central concepts of the working memory model. It represents a brief store of mainly verbal information Phonological loop together with a rehearsal mechanism. In many experiments Baddeley and colleagues have investigated the characteristics of this postulated structure. Memory span is the longest list of items that a person can repeat back in correct order immediately after presentation on 50% of all trials. Items Memory span may include words, numbers, or letters. The task is known as digit span when numbers are used. Memory is constructive and reconstructive process The memory for an event can and does depart systematically from the Constructive and reconstructive objective reality that gave rise to it processes –Both at the time it is formed and then later over time An apparent memory, of an event that did not actually happen, Constructive memory unconsciously constructed to fill a gap. deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true, Inferences with the laws of valid inference being studied in logic. Inferences (e.g. schemas, stereotypes) Post-event memory reconstruction Externally provided suggestions (e.g. „hit” vs. „smash”)  A schema is a mental concept that informs a person about what to expect from a variety of experiences and situations. Schemas are developed Schema based on information provided by life experiences and are then stored in memory. a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may Stereotype or may not accurately reflect reality. However, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. People remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than Zeigarnik-effect completed tasks Improve the recall of unrelated items by adding meaningful connections Mnemonic system between them It will facilitate later retrieval The items to be remembered in this mnemonic system are mentally associated with specific physical locations. The method relies on Method of loci memorized spatial relationships to establish, order, and recollect memorial content. The Keyword Method is an effective system for remembering definitions, Keyword method learning foreign language vocabulary, and more. Any two pieces of information can be linked together in your memory using this method. Basics of Medical Psychology IV. Personality & Psychological LECTURE 8 TITLE disorders Term Definition/ Description Distinctive and characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour that make up an individual’s personal style of interacting the physical and Personality social environment. These patterns are relative stable over time and across situations. To explain how people acquire the relatively stable aspects of their behaviors (e.g. attitudes, habits, attachment patterns, typical reactions, etc.) Functions of Personality Theories To understand the differences among individuals in expression of those behaviors. To understand and predict people and their behaviors. Psychodynamic theories focus on understanding the unconscious processes which influence the human behavior What we think and do is significantly driven by unconscious processes Basic Principles of Classical Psychodynamics: study of mental forces and how they motivate behavior Psychoanalysis emphasizes the role of unconscious motives and conflicts Emphasizes the importance of childhood experiences in accounting for current behavior “present is shaped and governed by the past” Present awareness Conscious all thoughts and feelings we are aware of Outside awareness but accessible all thoughts and feelings, which are available to us when we choose Preconscious to focus attention on them Its function is to censor: to prevent unconscious thoughts that might cause anxiety from reaching consciousness Not accessible ideas, impulses, feelings fantasies, memories that lie out of reach of the conscious mind and cannot be made conscious by focusing Unconscious mind one's attention they are unacceptable for the conscious are repressed from awareness  Id: the most primitive part of the personality, the part from which the Ego and the Superego later develop Instinctual drives (hunger, thirst, avoiding pain, sexuality, aggressivity) + repressed thoughts, feelings, desires, memories Id „pleasure principle”= to demand immediate satisfaction of desires, seek immediate pleasure, and avoid pain Harmonizes the urges of the Id with requirements of the external environment and the inhibitions and strivings of the Superego Connection with the external world Ego “Reality principle”: delay of the gratification of impulses until the situation is appropriate, adjustment by compromising, evaluating, problem-solving, etc. Moral standards, rules, and the ego ideal, which are incorporated into the personality by parental standards and morality (= identification) Superego Observes and evaluates our thoughts, feelings, actions, comparing actual ego functioning with ideal standards Primary Process Thinking The unconscious mental processes of the Id. Illogical, bizarre, and absurd, dreamlike images that seem incoherent (such as in dreams, art, young children’s thinking, neurotic symptoms, Primary and Secondary Process psychotic states) Thinking Secondary Process Thinking the form of thinking that is logical, organized, reality oriented, and influenced by the demands of the environment; the conscious mental activity of the Ego active process of excluding distressing material from conscious Repression awareness Traumatic events or frustration or overindulgence of the child’s needs in a Fixation certain stage of the personality development >> fixation on that stage Later, when an intrapsychic conflict arises which is somehow in Regression connection with the topic of the stage where he/she was fixed >> regression to that stage >> the person is not able to resolve the conflict Behaviorists state that the development of the personality and people’s current behavior are mainly influenced by stimuli of environment. Environmental stimuli shape our behavior through learning. Behaviorists deal with only phenomena which are observable(no unconscious things!), i.e. with observable behavior (psychoanalysis) Basic Principles of Behavior Theory Behavior is the result of a continuous interaction between the person and his environment They made scientific description about different learning processes: we learn connections between stimuli; we learn new behaviors (or to continue the old ones) if they are reinforced by the environment; and we learn through observing others’ behavior …because of the repeated association of an unconditional + a conditional Classical Conditioning (originally neutral)stimulus, the conditional stimulus will cause the unconditioned response on its own  the behavior is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the Operant Conditioning consequence (pleasant /unpleasant) modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behavior in the future A person can learn by observing the behavior of another person, if this another person is emotionally important for him (e.g. parents, other Social Leaning family members, friends, famous people -media! -etc.) It can happen intentionally or accidentally, as well. „Third force”: an alternative to the psychoanalysis and the behavior theory. People feel a need to develop their potentials and capabilities. Personal growth and self-actualization are the criteria of psychological health; not merely Ego-control (psychoanalysis) or adjustment to the Basic Principles of Humanistic environment (behavior theory). Theory Psychological health is a process, not an end state. Humanistic approach is concerned the individual’s subjective experience: how people see and evaluate themselves and the world. The basic motivating force are the maintenance of self-esteem and the self-actualization. - perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty - accept themselves and others for what they are - spontaneous in thought and behavior - problem-centered rather than self-centered Features of self-actualizers - have a good sense of humor - highly creative - concerned for the welfare of humanity - establish deep , satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few, rather than many people, etc. It deals with how people process information about themselves and Basic Principles of Cognitive Theory the world. Particularly, when people are stressed, they tend to lose some of their normal cognitive abilities and develop selective and egocentric conceptualizations of their situations. They typically distort some aspects Cognitive Distortions of the situation and ignore others: „cognitive distortions”. Examples: Dichotomous thinking, labelling, overgeneralization, discounting the positive. The triad forms part of his cognitive theory of depression and the concept is used as part of CBT, particularly in Beck's "Treatment of Negative Beck’s negative cognition triad Automatic Thoughts" (TNAT) approach. The triad involves "automatic, spontaneous and seemingly uncontrollable negative thoughts about: The self. The world or environment. -Appropriate perception of reality -Voluntary control over behavior and negative emotional states Criteria of mental well-being -Self-esteem and acceptance -Close and satisfying relationships with others -Productivity activity (work, study) -Deviation from cultural norms -Deviation from statistical norms Criteria of mental abnormality -Maladaptive behavior: if behaviors, thoughts, and feelings affect the well- being (have negative effects on the individual or on society) -Individual’s subjective feelings of distress Background for mental disorders Biological causes: alterations in the structure or the functions of the brain  Psychological background: psychoanalytic, behavior, cognitive approaches of mental diseases Cultural or sociological problems (discrimination, poverty, etc.) Vulnerability-stress model: interactions between a predisposition (biological and/or psychological vulnerability) for particular mental disorders and stressful environmental conditions → both vulnerability and stress are necessary for developing the disorder The reaction is proportionate to the danger Does not involve repression or other defensive indications of intrapsychic conflict Normal anxiety Does not require dysfunctional behaviour for its management (e.g. social isolation and other exaggerated avoidant behaviour) Can be dealt with on the level of conscious awareness Can be relieved if the situation is altered The intensity, frequency or persistence of the anxiety reaction is disproportionate to the danger It may involve rigid defense mechanisms such as repression, denial, projection, displacement Abnormal Anxiety Interferes with social or occupational functioning → impairment → clinically significant distress Generalized anxiety(GAD) Panic disorder Phobias Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): constant sense of tension and dread Panic disorder: episodes of acute and overwhelming anxiety attack Phobias: intense fear of a stimulus or situation that most people do not consider particularly dangerous Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): Forms of anxiety disorders -Obsessions: repetitive, anxiety-provoking thoughts, images or impulses -Compulsion: repetitive behaviours (e.g., hand washing, ordering, checking) for reducing the anxiety -Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): disturbing recurring flashbacks, avoidance or numbing of memories of the event, and hyperarousal in response to a traumatic event depressed mood loss of interest or pleasure in activities (anhedonia) appetite change and/or weight loss sleep disturbance Symptoms of depression psychomotor agitation or retardation fatigue or energy loss feelings of worthlessness or guilt attentional or concentration difficulties recurrent thoughts of death and/or suicide  LECTURE 9 TITLE Basics of Medical Psychology V. Social Influence and Social Cognition Term Definition/ Description The tendency to explain other people’s actions by Fundamental Attribution Error –Overestimating the influence of personality or character –Underestimating the influence of situations or circumstances The branch of psychology that deals with social interactions, including Social Psychology their origins and their effects on the individual. Coaction Many worked faster when someone else doing the same task was present Social Facilitation the boosting effects of coactors and audiences on performance sometimes derailing effect of coactors and audiences on performance The presence of coactors and audiences improves the speed and accuracy Social Inhibition of performance on simple or well-learned tasks But impairs the speed and accuracy of performance on complex or poorly learned tasks A feeling for individuals that they have lost their personal identities and Deindividuation merged anonymously into the group Social norms Implicit or explicit rules for acceptable behavior and beliefs Bystander effect People are less likely to help when others are present Everybody in the group misleads everybody else by defining the situation Pluralistic Ignorance as a non-emergency. The reverse of crowd panic. When each individual knows that many others are present, Diffusion of Responsibility –The burden of responsibility does not fall solely on him or her Minority influence, a form of social influence, takes place when a member Minority Influence of a minority group influences the majority to accept the minority's beliefs or behaviour. Involves the integration of attitudes, values, standards and the opinions of Internalization others into one's own identity or sense of self. There is a drive toward cognitive consistency. When there is an Cognitive Dissonance Theory inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance) The discomfort produced by inconsistent cognitions rationalization (also known as making excuses) is a defense mechanism in which controversial behaviors or feelings are justified and explained in a Rationalization seemingly rational or logical manner to avoid the true explanation, and are made consciously tolerable The over justification effect occurs when an expected external incentive Over justification Effect such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task. Identification is a psychological process whereby the subject assimilates an aspect, property, or attribute of the other and is transformed, wholly or Identification partially, by the model the other provides. It is by means of a series of identifications that the personality is constituted and specified. A reference group is a group to which an individual or another group is Reference Groups compared. Like social norms – except to entire institutions, or organizations of the Institutional Norms same type (Schools, prisons, governments, or commercial businesses ) Refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more Group polarization effect extreme than the initial inclination of its members. A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in Groupthink which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome.