Crisis Communication Study Guide PDF
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This study guide covers crisis communication, including the different types of crises and response strategies. It also touches on public opinion, opinion leadership, and factors to consider when developing organizational communication plans.
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Study Guide for Final Exam Crisis Communication (lecture) What is a crisis? - A crisis is a significant occurrence that negatively affects an organization, industry, government, or even a country and the people who connect to these...
Study Guide for Final Exam Crisis Communication (lecture) What is a crisis? - A crisis is a significant occurrence that negatively affects an organization, industry, government, or even a country and the people who connect to these entities. It interrupts regular operations or threatens the existence of the entities involved. - The two types of crisis are… Reputational crisis:significant damage is under reputation, but organizations are slightly affected Operational crisis:A company's reputation isn’t damaged, but its operations are, like a product recall or when a business has to shut down due to a natural disaster for the safety of employees. The operational crisis is more challenging to deal with. Instructing information and adjusting information - Before thinking about the reputational threat, an ethical organization should adress… - Physical wellbeing of their stakeholders ➔ Instructing information - Psychological wellbeing of their stakeholders ➔ Adjusting information Response strategies - According to the situational crisis communication theory (SCCT) (Coombs, 2007) - Denial strategies:Reject or shiftblame ➔ Attack the accuser: These claims are baseless ➔ Denial: This incident did not occur ➔ Scapegoat: It was caused by a third party - Diminish strategies:Minimize responsibilityor harm ➔ Excuse: t happened due to circumstances beyond our control ➔ Justification: The harm was minor compared to the benefits - Rebuild strategies:Acknowledge responsibilityand rebuild trust ➔ Apology: We are deeply sorry for our failure ➔ Compensation: We will cover all related expenses. Factors that organizations/brands need to consider when they choose strategies - According to SCCT (Coombs, 2007) ➔ Are you responsible? If so, to what extent? ➔ Do you have good relationships with your stakeholders? ➔ Have you had similar crises in the past? ➔ brand identity ➔ Public relations need to work with other staff functions, such as legal department. Chapter 8 Public Opinion and Persuasion What is public opinion? (lecture) - Public opinion is a collection of views held by persons interested in the subject. - Public opinion is generally formed around the views of people who have taken the time to sift information, evaluate it, and create an opinion they express to others. - Public opinions are seldom unified. - Most people are generally indifferent or apathetic toward issues that don’t appear to affect them. - Public relations professionals can’t assume that the loudest opinions are the most widely shared. Definition of opinion leaders and characteristics of opinion leaders (lecture) - People who are knowledgeable and articulate about specific issues. - These opinion leaders help frame and define the issues that interest them for other, less-informed public members. - Public Opinions are formed by… 1. News media → 2. Influence opinion leaders → 3. Opinion leaders influence the average person. Types of opinion leaders (lecture) - Formal opinion leaders (power leader) ➔ Might be done as spokespeople ➔ Examples include elected officials, President - Informal opinion leaders ➔ Might be done as role models ➔ They are highly informed, articulate, and credible on particular issues. They can have a lot of influence on their peer groups, not because of their power over other people but because of their reputable characteristics. ➔ An example would be an uncle who is informed about politics. ➔ *Test question could be asked to differentiate between the two, and is this an example of… Agenda-setting theory (lecture) - Early theory contends that media content sets the agenda for public discussion. - People tend to talk about what they hear or see on television news programs or read on the front or home pages of newspapers. - According to this theory, the media tells the public what to think about by selecting stories and headlines, but not necessarily what to think. - L imited-effects model of mass media - First-level agenda-setting effects These issues are what you see repeatedly and only cover some of the news information. They make you think that those issues are essential. Those issues become the topic of conversation and shape your daily conversation. - Second-level agenda-setting effects When the media reports on an issue, they use a particular perspective. That perspective can affect how we see the problem. Framing theory and framing (lecture) - News frames - Gain-frame vs. loss-frame Frequently seen in health campaigns such as breast cancer, vaccination, etc… When you use gain-frame, you focus on the benefits of taking action. A lost frame is when you focus on the costs of failing to take action. - Framing is about how something is presented and what facts, themes, and even words are selected to present something. - Traditionally, the framing theory is how reporters present a story, but it has been applied to all kinds of strategic communication. Findings from persuasion research (lecture) - Basic concepts:Aristotle‘s ethos, logos, and paths - Ethos: source credibility - Logos: logical argument, facts, statistics, etc. - Paths: Emotional appeals - Fear appeal - Guilt appeal - Humor - Hope - Anger The limits of persuasion (lecture and textbook) - Lack of message penetration - Message distortion - People might not understand the message you’re putting out - Competing or conflicting messages - Self-selection - The idea is that people pay more attention to messages that they want to hear, often the messages that they agree with, and tend to neglect the messages they disagree with - Self-perception - T he idea that people perceive the same information differently depending on their previous positions and already-formulated opinions How can you connect with target audiences (lecture and textbook) - Analyze the audience - Demographics: age, gender, ethnicity, income, education, and geographic - residence groupings. Other data often gathered by marketing departments are a group’s buying habits, disposable income, and ways of spending leisure time. - Psychographics: attitudes, beliefs, lifestyles, values, and interests. - Appeal to self-interest - Get the audience to participate - Reinforce existing beliefs or values How can you make your messages persuasive (lecture and textbook) - Differences between public relations/strategic communication and - propaganda - Propaganda: connotes falsehood, lies and deceit, disinformation, and duplicity - PR professionals and other professional communicators make sure not to use propaganda techniques to deceive and mislead the intentionally - public. - Write clearly and convincingly. - Use credible sources or spokespeople. - Use appropriate channel - Consider timing and context. Chapter 11 Traditional Mass Media Why is Mass Media still important? (lecture) - Mass media = traditional media Reach vast audiences in a cost-effective way Trustworthiness Symbiotic relationships with social media Tips to create a target media list (lecture) - Identify Relevant Media Outlets: Focus on those thatcover your industry or audience. - Research Specific Journalists: Choose journalistswho have previously covered topics related to your news. - Consider Audience Demographics: Align with media consumed by your target demographic. What makes something “newsworthy”? (lecture) * Think acronym: This (Timeliness) Puppy (Prominence) Stands (Significance/Proximity) Up (Unusualness), Hugs (Human Interest) Cats (Conflict) Nicely (Newness) - Timeliness:something is current ➔ Announce it when it happens ➔ Relate to breaking news—something that is already being covered ➔ Tap into ongoing issues or controversies ➔ Relate to national holidays - Prominence: ➔ News rarely covers something unless it's “sexy.” ➔ Use celebrity support ➔ Smaller companies = harder to establish prominence. - Significance/proximity:this will affect people ➔ How do we connect it to people’s everyday experiences/ How many/who will be affected? ➔ Where is the affected area? Is it close to the readers/audiences? - Unusualness:out of the ordinary; products/events should be fun, friendly, practical, imaginative - Human interest:what is the personal angle? - Conflict:Two or more conflicting views - Newness:how is this a novelty? What is new? Write news releases like news stories (textbook) - Purpose:to be read, it must capture the audience's attention and interest with a headline and a strong, declarative lead or first paragraph. - Components… - Headline:states the most newsworthy aspect of the story as sufficiently as possible. ➔ States the most newsworthy aspect of the story concisely. ➔ Length: Max 10 words or 90 characters. ➔ Keywords: Place in the first 70 characters for SEO ➔ Examples: Southwestern Airlines Names New Marketing Executive, Merck Develops New Drug for Asmtha Sufferers - Lead:the first paragraph that conveys the key message. - Two types… 1. Straight summary lead:quickly summarizes the key message in 1–2 sentences. ➔ Example: “Amazon reported quarterly profit as demand remained robust for its cloud-computing business.” 2. Feature lead:attracts interest and encourages further reading. ➔ Often used for travel and lifestyle sections of newspapers and magazines ➔ E xample: “Sonomoa County’s most significant hotel opening in years faithfully embodies the area’s unspoiled, agricultural setting.” - Common mistakes… 1. Overloading it with information 2. Using flowery adjectives 3. Writing long leads filled with technical jargon - Tips… ➔ Keep sentences under 25 words. ➔ Avoid starting with prepositional phrases. ➔ Use declarative sentences with minimal dependent clauses. Write a pitch (textbook) - Purpose:A brief, creative message tailored to a specific media outlet, highlighting a story idea or angle. - Content: ➔ May reference a news release or suggest a feature the reporter can develop. ➔ Increasingly aimed at social media influencers. - Structure: - Brief: 50–100 words, easily read on a smartphone. - Personalized:Connect to a recent story or the journalist's interests. - Example:“You are cordially invited to the Dirtiest Event in Boulder.” - Six Elements of a Pitch: 1. Enough facts to support a story 2. An angle of interest to the readers of the publication 3. The possibility of alternative angles 4. An offer to supply statistics, quotes, and interviews that are credible 5. Mention of available photos, infographics, or video clips 6. How the reporter can directly contact you for more information - latforms Disadvantages/ Effectiveness Advantages/ Effectiveness P to pitch Email Advantages: Most popular and professional method. Subject lines are direct and specific (e.g.,“Local restaurant rebounds after COVID.”). ffectiveness:High, but E subject lines are key to success. - Follow-up after an initial pitch via email. Twitter 1. O nly a small percentage - U seful for those with of journalists accept established Twitter pitches. relationships. 2. Strict length limits restrict detailed messaging. Telephone . L 1 east popular. - P ersonal touch, 2. Difficult to time calls especially if you’ve effectively. researched the 3. Forces journalists to journalist. make snap decisions, often negative. Use a standard news release format (textbook) - Key Elements: 1. Headline:same rules as above: concise, newsworthy, SEO-optimized. 2. Dateline:location of the news and release date (e.g., “DALLAS, TX (December 6, 2024)—”). 3. Lead:paragraph summarizing the key information (who, what, when, where, why) 4. Body paragraphs:elaborate on key details, stats, and quotes/ structured in an inverted pyramid style (most critical info first). 5. Boilerplate:brief organizational background (e.g.,“Southwestern Airlines is a leading carrier with over 50 years of service.”). 6. Media Contact Information:names, email addresses, and phone numbers for journalists to reach for further inquiries Send out media advisories (textbook) - To obtain media coverage of an event, use a media advisory. - Notification to assignment editors informing them of a newsworthy event that would lend itself to a story, photo, or video clip; also called a media alert. - Media advisory:most common format for media advisories is short, bulleted lists that don’t include embedded visuals such as photographs or infographics; what matters to members of the media is the upcoming event and why it should be covered Assemble Media kits (textbook) - P urpose:a media kit provides multimedia resources for major events (e.g., product launches and significant initiatives). It helps journalists and editors easily access comprehensive information to create stories. Components of a Media Kit: - Main News Release:summarizes the key message or announcement. - Fact Sheet:includes essential details about the event, product, initiative, or organization. - Multimedia Content:photos, infographics, and video clips (e.g., product demos, event footage). - Contact Information:emails and phone numbers for PR representatives. - Links:organization’s website, social media pages, and additional resources. Creation Process: - Collaborative Effort:involves writers, photographers, graphic designers, and videographers. - Customization:varies by organization and intended audience. ➔ Examples:Electronic Arts (EA): Includes video game simulations for entertainment reporters. ➔ Movie Studios:Clips from the movie, interviews, and production facts. Advantages of Digital Media Kits: - Cost-Effective:eliminates expenses for hard copies, CDs, or USB drives. - Wider Reach:online kits in newsrooms can be accessed by ➔ Consumers. ➔ Bloggers and influencers. ➔ Online forums and websites (via social media tags and RSS feeds). - Convenient Access:can be shared instantly and updated easily. Occasional Use of USB Flash Drives: - Rarely used but practical for specific scenarios. - Example: HP provides USB flash drives to journalists at international events for use during long flights. Chapter 12 Online and Social Media New Media vs. Social Media (lecture) - New Media: incorporates all technological devices and programs using digital information and distribution, i.e., e-books, static website - Social Media:web tools and platforms that allow users to share information, opinions, and experiences with other users. - Broad-scale interactivity, i.e., blog, Twitter, Facebook - Be strategic about the social media platforms used:Characteristics of major social platforms (Table 12.2) Compare distribution tools (textbook Table 12.1) - rganizations O O rganizations' E arned aid Media P Websites Social media Media (mass (advertising) channels media outlets) mount & Type N A o limits on the ontent limited C ontent C ontent C of Content amount by the platform limited by the limited by the (space/length) (character media outlet’s platform ad or type of counts, file size, format and format and content; full language gatekeepers cost multilingual support, etc.) (editors) support possible ontrol over C otal control T ontent can be C ontent can C ontent can C Content over the flagged or be edited, be refused or content removed by the published discontinued delivered platform with errors, or by the refused advertiser orrections & C an be made C an be made C ust be M ot possible N Updates instantly, at any instantly, at any negotiated or requires time time, through new content the tools and added provided costs each R ny internet A ny user of the If selected, A he media T (potential user and their platform and the media market for audience) social networks their networks outlet’s that outlet or audience problem ccessibility of A A ccessible by ccessible by A It may be ccessible for A content anyone online, any online user, accessible a limited time from anywhere, from anywhere, only to at any time at any time subscribers or for a limited time Costs oderate: M oderate: M xpensive: E xpensive: E Website Content Media High creation and creation, relations placement hosting, community efforts rates content management, creation, comment pdates, and u moderation maintenance haracteristics of major social platforms (textbook Table 12.2) →I can’t find this C in the textbook! - Chapter 15 Corporate Public Relations ow can PR help corporations earn credibility, trust, and reputation (lecture) H Media Relations (lecture) - Corporate social responsibility (CSR):corporations are citizens of our society and have duties to society besides making money. - What about environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) activities? - Why is CSR important? - CSR is an essential aspect of corporate reputation - Beliefs and values influence buying behavior, advocating for brands, workplace choices, and investment. - Less government regulations - Employee morale/turnover - CSR efforts have mixed motives; it does benefit society, but it also benefits the company Customer/consumer relations and its PR objectives (lecture and textbook) → I want to review Table 15.1 in section 15.3.2! - Customer relations:a single incident can damage a company’s reputation ➔ Word of mouth online and offline ➔ On average, a person with a bad experience shares those bad experiences with 17 others. - Customer PR objectives: foster two-way symmetrical communication between customers and organization (e.g., management) ➔ Keep old customers ➔ Most sales are made to established customers → Keep them happy ➔ Attract new customers ➔ Market new items or services ➔ Thousands of products come out every year ➔ Our job is to make our products stand out! ➔ Expedite handling complaints ➔ Reduce costs ➔ When products are returned, it costs us money! ➔ K eep customers informed before buying a product. ➔ Determine what consumers think and say about organizational policies, acts, decisions, products, services, etc. ➔ Ensure that all statements made to consumers concerning prices and quality of products and services are truthful. ➔ Educate employees to give prompt, accurate, and courteous service. Customer/consumer activism (lecture and textbook) - Consumer Activism:demanding changes in corporate policies - However, they pose a serious and complex threat to corporate reputation, and their efforts can ultimately affect sales. Employee relations (textbook) - Responding to employees’ concerns and keeping them informed and motivated is based on the understanding that the employees are the front line of any effective PR program. - Employees are the face of their employer within their social circles ➔ When their organization is in the news, their friends, family, and neighbors treat employees as information sources who can influence their views. - Employees are also in a position to help or harm the organization's reputation daily: ➔ If morale is low or employees believe the company isn’t treating them fairly, that unhappiness will likely be reflected in their comments. ➔ Conversely, enthusiastic employees can greatly enhance an organization’s reputation within a community as a good place to work. - Turnover is reduced when employees are happy, which generates more job applicants. Investor relations (textbook) - Public relations efforts to create and maintain investors’ confidence in a corporation and build good relationships with the financial community. - Keeping investors informed can affect their enthusiasm for the organization; investors can be not only stockholders of publicly traded companies but also donors to nonprofit organizations. Marketing communication (lecture) - Marketing communication/marketing public relations: use public relations tools, strategies, and tactics to support a company's marketing and sales objectives. - Purpose:gain awareness, stimulate sales, facilitate communication, and build relationships between consumers, companies, and brands. Integrated marketing communication/what is PR’s role in integrated marketing communications (textbook and lecture) - Integrated marketing communication (IMC) involves managing all the sources of information about a product or service to ensure maximum message penetration. - How PR is used in IMC: ➔ Generate product publicity ➔ Cause marketing/cause-related marketing - Company-cause fit:the cause should be closely related to the company’s products or services and appeal to the company’s primary customers. - Choose a cause that you are committed to and are willing to stand by ➔ Corporate sponsorships (textbook: why is corporate sponsorship important?) ➔ Viral marketing:viral marketing strategies use pass-it-on techniques on the web to generate more significant traffic to websites or social media accounts, primarily to stimulate impulse purchases or downloads. ➔ CSR or CSA = brand activism is when a brand takes a stand on controversial social issues Chapter 18 Nonprofit, Health, and Education What is a non-profit? (lecture) - eferred to as charities R - In 2019, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) recognized 1.54 million nonprofits in the US. - Non-profits are tax-exempt. Different types of non-profits (lecture) - membership organizations - advocacy groups - social service organizations - educational organizations - Hospital and public health agencies - City historical societies and arts organizations - Global foundations Motivations for giving (lecture) - Inherent generosity-help the less fortunate - Peer pressure - Sense of guilt - Religious or moral imperative - Receiving recognition - Claiming tax deductions Pros and cons of fund-raising tactics of individual donations (textbook) - Solicitation Channel PROs CONs irect mail:a motivating H D ave a 4.4% response osts more than email C letter and brochure sent rate, compared to the and social media ith a response card/ w .12% response rate for o olicitations, and many s form and a postage-paid email solicitations people will toss it as junk return envelope; often mail used for local or limited fundraising campaigns, such as a year-end campaign elephone calls:could T elatively inexpensive: R any people resent M be solicited by a live 5-8 cents for each call. being interrupted by a volunteer caller or an Legitimate charities are call and either block or automated robocalling exempt from the national refuse to answer calls system like those used Do Not Call Registery’s from unknown numbers. by political candidates prohibition on randomly It can be difficult for the and political action calling people. caller to clearly and committees Automated systems can concisely explain the use random digit dialing cause being funded. to reach unlisted Converting verbal numbers for potential promises into confirmed donors or supporters. written pledges is problematic. Many people object to the impersonal nature of robocalls. mails and E elatively cost-effective R ost people are wary of M organizational methods. online solicitations. They websites:Often used by are less effective for highly visible, trusted lesser-known organizations such as organizations, and email the Salvation Army, solicitations are likely to Greenpeace, and be filtered out as spam. Wikipedia Building and maintaining a well-designed website with the necessary functionality can be challenging for smaller groups. rowdfunding:Raising It is an effective method C ost platforms charge a M money through many and is expected to grow. fee for the service they small donations by provide. Platforms harnessing the power of geared specifically the internet and social toward nonprofits tend to media, often for a limited be lower cost but have period; an essential less name recognition. eans for entrepreneurs m to finance projects or bring innovative ideas to the marketplace. ocial media:Using the S xtend the reach of E rospective donors may P organization’s social campaigns. Nonprofits not be social media media channels to easily broadcast live users. Most people are fundraise online and fundraising events and way of online build support for the videos, making solicitations. organization. emotional appeals. Some platforms offer crowdfunding capabilities; Facebook allows nonprofits to embed a “donate” plugin on its profile page to collect funds. obile channels:Using M obile phones have M olicitation calls to S mobile phones to reach replaced landlines for mobiles have the same audiences via texts, many. Donating can be downsides as calls to calls, or mobile websites. as simple as texting a landlines. given number or clicking a button: live telephone calls or robocalls can target mobile phone users. Websites soliciting donations can be optimized for mobiles. -
