Psychology Study Notes PDF

**Motivation** 1. **Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Rewards**: - **Intrinsic Rewards**: Internal satisfaction, such as enjoying the task itself (e.g., painting because you love art). - **Extrinsic Rewards**: External incentives like money, grades, or prizes (e.g., studying fo...

**Motivation** 1. **Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Rewards**: - **Intrinsic Rewards**: Internal satisfaction, such as enjoying the task itself (e.g., painting because you love art). - **Extrinsic Rewards**: External incentives like money, grades, or prizes (e.g., studying for a good grade). - When to use: - **Intrinsic**: Best for creative or passion-driven tasks. - **Extrinsic**: Effective for straightforward, repetitive tasks but may hinder creativity. *Example*: Daniel Pink's TED Talk argues that intrinsic motivation is key for complex, creative tasks. 2. **Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs**: - Five levels: physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. - Lower needs (e.g., food, safety) must be met before higher ones (e.g., achievement, purpose). - *School Application*: Address basic needs (like hunger or safety) to enable learning. **Social Psychology** 1. **Social Attitudes**: - **Individualism**: Emphasizes personal independence (common in Western cultures). - **Collectivism**: Focuses on group goals and harmony (common in Eastern cultures). 2. **Cognitive Biases**: - **Halo Effect**: A single positive trait influences overall judgment (e.g., thinking a kind teacher must also be intelligent). - **Actor-Observer Bias**: Attributing others\' actions to personality but ours to circumstances (e.g., "They're late because they're lazy, but I'm late due to traffic"). - **Self-Serving Bias**: Success is our doing; failure is external (e.g., good grades are from effort, bad ones from unfair tests). - **Cognitive Dissonance**: Discomfort from conflicting beliefs/behaviors (e.g., justifying buying an expensive item you didn't need). 3. **Key Experiments**: - **Asch's Conformity Study**: Found that people conform to group opinions even if they're wrong. - **Milgram's Obedience Study**: Demonstrated that people obey authority, even to the point of causing harm, especially under pressure or a sense of "greater good." **Sleep** 1. **Stages of Sleep**: - **NREM (Non-REM)**: Includes light sleep to deep sleep; essential for physical recovery. - **REM (Rapid Eye Movement)**: Dreaming stage; critical for memory and learning. 2. **Why We Sleep**: - Sleep helps consolidate memories and restore physical health. - *Example*: Studies show sleep-deprived individuals struggle with learning and focus. **Stress and Happiness** 1. **Stress**: - Definitions: - **Stimulus-Based**: External cause (e.g., a looming deadline). - **Response-Based**: Physical/emotional reaction (e.g., tension). - **Appraisal-Based**: Interpretation of an event (e.g., seeing an exam as a threat or challenge). - Types: - **Eustress**: Positive stress (e.g., preparing for a performance). - **Distress**: Harmful stress (e.g., chronic financial worries). - **Coping Strategies**: - Problem-focused: Addressing the issue. - Emotion-focused: Managing emotional response. 2. **Happiness**: - Three-factor model: - Pleasant life (hedonic pleasures). - Good life (engagement). - Meaningful life (purpose). - Research shows major events have temporary effects; people often return to a baseline level of happiness. **Psychological Disorders and Treatments** 1. **Defining Disorders**: - Disorders involve significant dysfunction in thoughts, emotions, or behavior. - Challenges include subjective interpretation and stigma. 2. **Diathesis-Stress Model**: - Combines genetic predispositions and environmental triggers (e.g., stress causing depression in someone predisposed). 3. **Treatments**: - **Psychotherapy**: Talk-based therapy (e.g., Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy combines changing negative thoughts with altering behaviors). - **Biomedical Therapy**: Medications or procedures targeting biological causes (e.g., antidepressants)