Science, Technology, & Society S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Past Paper PDF

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Conditions 1.0 Historical Antecedents 4.1 Technology as a Way of Revealing 1.1 Ancient Times 4.2 Go...

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Conditions 1.0 Historical Antecedents 4.1 Technology as a Way of Revealing 1.1 Ancient Times 4.2 Good Life 1.2 Middle Ages 4.3 When Technology and Humanity Cross 1.3 Renaissance 1.4 Scientific Revolution 1.5 Industrial Revolution 1.6 Modern Era 1.7 Technology in the Philippines 2.0 Intellectual Revolutions that Defined Society 2.1 Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian 2.2 Meso-American, Asian, Middle Eastern, Africa 3.0 Science and Technology for Nation-building 3.1 Main module 3.2 Science Education in the Philippines 3.3 Major Development Programs & Personalities in S&T in the Philippines 3.4 S&T for nation-building 4.0 Science & Tech and the Human STS PAGE 1  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Aeolipile or steam engine ○ Hero of Alexandria, as he was often known, was a Greek born in 10AD in 1.0 Historical Antecedents Alexandria, part of Egypt, who invented Science the Aeolipile or steam engine. It was ○ (knowledge from) the careful study of used to automate opening of temple the structure and behavior of the doors by lighting a fire on the altar. physical world, especially by watching, Papyrus Sheets measuring, and doing experiments, ○ earliest paper-like material and the development of theories to Ox-drawn Plough describe the results of these activities ○ Using the power of oxen to pull the Scientist plough revolutionized agriculture. ○ (Natural Philosophers in the Ancient Ink Time) formulate testable explanations ○ often used one for writing in and predictions based on their hieroglyphs. This ink was very black observations like carbon black and could not Technology deteriorate when been applied over the ○ application of scientific knowledge for papyrus to write practical purposes, especially in Sunclock (sundial) industry. It is a scientific or industrial ○ The Egyptians were so advanced that process, invention, method, or the like. had the idea of calculating time as ○ It is from Greek from tekhnē (art or early as the 3,500BCT craft) and -logia (study or knowledge). ○ made it possible to differentiate Antecedent between and predict morning, ○ a thing or event that existed before or afternoon and night. logically precedes another ○ The oldest surviving sun clock was found in 2013 in the Valley of the Kings. 1.1 Ancient Times Mummification Mesopotamia ○ The ancient Egyptians believed in the ➔ ancient region located in the eastern afterlife, plenty of gods and Mediterranean bounded in the northeast by the goddesses which made it possible to Zagros Mountains and in the southeast by the actually start the process of Arabian Plateau mummification (to preserve the ➔ today’s Iraq, mostly, but also parts of modern human body from decaying). day Iran, Syria and Turkey. ○ when a Pharaoh dies his life energy Wheel (ka) would move from his body to ○ not for transportation but as potter’s another realm temporarily, so it was wheel and existed around 3500 BC important to them to preserve the Chariot body from decaying when the spirit ○ It was originally based on two wheels returns which were attached with an animal like a horse using wood and ropes Chinese Cuneiform Great Wall ○ The Sumerians developed the first ○ one of the seven famous wonders of form of writing to maintain business the world records Egyptians STS PAGE 2  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ○ Represents a series of fortifications made initially of stone, earth and later Greek Natural Philosophers of bricks. ➔ The Greeks’ interest in field of science can be ○ 221 BC - goal of protecting the seen as far back as the sixth century BC, and northern borders of the country from they have often been hailed as the fathers of different nomadic groups that invaded science, medicine, zoology, and many other the Chinese Empire areas. Compass ➔ Their findings in the areas of astronomy, ○ Originally, it was used in fortune-telling geography, and mathematics made them and architecture until the Chinese pioneers in the field of science. figured out it could be used for traveling Thales of Miletus Seismograph ○ 620 - 546 BC ○ Each of the dragons was facing ○ geometer, military engineer, downwards and had a small ball in its astronomer, and logician. Probably mouth. influenced by Babylonians and ○ Earthquake - the dragon facing the Egyptians closest direction would open its ○ Discovered the solstice and equinox mouth releasing the ball into the and is credited with predicting a mouth of small bronze frog battle-stopping eclipse thought to be underneath. on 8 May 585 B.C ​Paper Anaximander of Miletus ○ Although the discovery of paper is ○ 611 - 547 BC linked to 105 AD, recent ○ Invented the gnomon on the sundial archaeological discoveries suggest (although some say it came from the that it already existed in Ancient China Babylonians), providing a way to keep from around 100 BC. Back then, the track of time. paper was made from mulberry tree ○ created a map of the known world. He bark but the creator later included was one of the first cartographers hemp and fishnets to strengthen it. Plato Gunpowder ○ 428 - 348 BC ○ invented in the Tang dynasty in the ○ The ancient alarm clock used by the ninth century by alchemists searching Egyptians was made by a Greek for an elixir of immortality engineer, physicist and mathematician ○ mixture of charcoal, saltpeter and Ctesibius (285 – 222 BCE) who lived in sulfur Alexandria, Ptolemaic Egypt. Mechanical Clock ○ constructed his own version of an ○ The first mechanical clock in Europe alarm clock with vessels much ahead was created around the beginning of of Ctesibius the 13th century. Aristotle ○ the first Chinese mechanical clock ○ 384 - 322 BC was created in 725 by Yi Xing, a ○ decided the Earth must be a globe. Buddhist monk, astronomer, The concept of a sphere for the Earth mathematician and mechanical appears in Plato's Phaedo, but engineer who lived during the Tang Aristotle elaborates and estimates the Dynasty (from 618 to 907). His clock size. worked by dripping water that ○ Aristotle classified animals and is the activated a wheel father of zoology. STS PAGE 3  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria natural forces like rivers and wind, a process ○ 90 - 168 CE that continues to the present-day. ○ founded the Ptolemaic System of geocentric astronomy, which held for 5. SPINNING WHEEL 1,400 years. He drew maps with have their origin in India sometime between latitude and longitude and developed the 5th and 10th Century AD. the science of optics. There is evidence they were in use in China at about 1000 AD. They reached Europe via the Middle East, by around 1400. 1.2 Middle Ages The spinning wheel replaced the earlier 1. MECHANICAL CLOCK method of hand spinning, in which the Timekeeping devices have emerged since the individual fibers were drawn out of a mass of ancient world, but it was not until the Middle wool held on a stick, or distaff, twisted Ages that the technology was invented that together to form a continuous strand, and then allowed for mechanical clocks to accurately wound on a second stick keep track of time. The knowledge of not only what hour it was, but even what minute and BLACK DEATH second it was, would change the way people ➔ The mass disruption to medieval society scheduled their days and work patterns, caused by the plague set the progress of especially in urban areas science and discovery back, and the knowledge would not reemerge until the 2. PRINTING PRESS Renaissance. While printing technology had been developed ➔ About 35% of the English population. The in 11th century China, it was the 15th century devastation was so severe that you might have German Johannes Gutenberg and his printing found entire ghost towns in the English press that started a new era of the mass countryside where the whole town was killed production of books. Until the rise of by the plague computers in the 20th century, books and the printed word would remain the dominant form 1.3 Renaissance of media for the world’s knowledge. Leonardo daVinci 3. EYEGLASSES ○ Siege Defenses Not sure who can be credited with the ○ War Scythe invention of eyeglasses, this device could be ○ Multi-Barrel Gun found in Western Europe in the latter years of ○ Ornithopter the 13th century. ○ Tank The ability to correct vision problems makes it ○ Helicopter one of the most useful medieval inventions ○ Airplane Wing and a great benefit to hundreds of millions of Nicholas Copernicus people today. ○ Arts, Law, Medicine, Astronomy ○ Heliocentric Universe 4. WATER AND WINDMILLS Galileo Galilei used from antiquity, it would be in the Early ○ Physics Middle Ages that they became very popular. Isochronous Motion Throughout the medieval period, new and Parabolic Motion ingenious forms of mills were invented, which Inertia (Newton) allowed people to harness the energy from ○ Thermometer ○ Telescope STS PAGE 4  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Moon, Jupiter, Saturn, Milky ◆ The machine spins more than one ball Way of yarn or thread at a time, making it easier and faster to make cloth. 1.4 Scientific Revolution ➔ Cotton Gin 1794 Christian Huygens ◆ Eli Whitney creates a machine that ○ Pendulum Clock makes it much easier to separate John Harrison cotton seeds from cotton fiber. ○ Regulating Spiral (1675) ◆ It greatly reduces the time it takes to ○ Theory of Light clean cotton and helps the southern Isaac Newton states make more money from cotton ○ Principia (3 books) crops Modern Mechanics Celestial Mechanics ➔ Telegraph 1844 Laws of the Universe ◆ Samuel Morse invents the telegraph - Johannes Gutenberg allows messages to be sent quickly ○ Moveable Table over a wire. ○ Latin Bible ◆ By 1860, telegraph wires stretch from the east coast of the United States west of the Mississippi River 1.5 Industrial Revolution ➔ marked a period of development in the latter ➔ Sewing Machine 1846 half of the 18th century that transformed ◆ People had to make their own clothes largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe and at home or pay someone else to sew America into industrialized, urban ones. them by hand. ➔ The American Industrial Revolution commonly ◆ Elias Howe invents the sewing referred to as the second Industrial Revolution, machine. Now clothes can be made in started sometime between 1820 and 1870. large factories ➔ led to inventions that included the telephone, ◆ west of the Mississippi River the sewing machine, Xray, lightbulb, and the combustible engine. ➔ Dynamite 1866 ➔ The increase in the number of factories and ◆ Alfred Nobel - a safer way to blast migration to the cities led to pollution, holes in mountains or the ground than deplorable working and living conditions, as simply lighting black powder. well as child labor. ◆ important in clearing paths to build things such as roads and railroad ➔ Steam Engine 1712 tracks. ◆ Thomas Newcomen invents the first steam engine. It is not very useful yet, ➔ Vaccine 1870 but the idea of using steam to make ◆ Louis Pasteur - chemist ; believed that machines go will be important to the germs caused disease. Created Industrial Revolution. vaccines that helped prevent many common diseases, which helped ➔ Spinning Jenny 1764 people live longer. ◆ James Hargreaves - British carpenter and weaver, invents the spinning jenny. STS PAGE 5  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ➔ Telephone 1876 ◆ Hollerith & Watson ◆ not have invented the telephone, but ◆ Enigma & Colossus Alexander Graham Bell was the first to ◆ John vonNeuman get a patent for it. ◆ Ekert & Mockley ◆ Being able to speak to people over a ◆ Shockley, Bardeen &Brattain telephone wire greatly changes the ◆ Jack Kilby way the world communicates. ◆ Jobs & Wozniak ◆ Gates & Allen ➔ Light Bulb 1879 ◆ Not the first man to create a light bulb, 1.7 Technology in the Philippines Thomas Edison created a light bulb that lasted longer than other designs PRE-COLONIAL ERA and showed it off by lighting a lamp. ➔ Stone Age ◆ Edison's light bulbs allow people to do ◆ Archeological findings show that many things at night, such as work, modern man from Asian mainland first that used to only happen during the came over land on across narrow day channels to live in Batangas and Palawan about 48,000 B.C. ◆ Subsequently they formed settlement 1.6 Modern Era in Sulu, Davao, Zamboanga, Samar, ➔ Rockets to space Negros, Batangas, Laguna, Rizal, ◆ Robert Goddard Bulacan and Cagayan. Liquid-Fueled (1929) ◆ They made simple tools and weapons ◆ Werner vonBraun of stone flakes and later developed V1, V2, V5, Saturn 5 method of sawing and polishing stones around 40,000 B.C. ➔ Albert Einstein ◆ By around 3,000 B.C. they were ◆ Special Theory (1905) producing adzes, ornaments of ◆ General Theory seashells and pottery. ◆ Quantum Theory ◆ Pottery flourished for the next 2,000 ◆ Big Bang Theory years until they imported Chinese Curved, Finite Space porcelain. ◆ Atomic Bomb ◆ Soon they learned to produce copper, Responsibility of Science bronze, iron, and gold metal tools and ornaments. ➔ The Manhattan Project ◆ Oppenheimer ➔ Iron Age ◆ Fermi, Berthe, Teller ◆ Filipinos were engaged in extraction, ◆ Four Sites smelting and refining of iron from ◆ Project Trinity ores, until the importation of cast iron Los Alamos from Sarawak and later from China. Ground Zero ◆ Alamagordo ➔ Industry/Agriculture ◆ Fat Man & Little Boy ◆ first century AD, Filipinos were ◆ Treason weaving cotton, smelting iron, making pottery and glass ornaments, and ➔ Computer Pioneers cultivated lowland rice fields with ◆ Charles Babbage STS PAGE 6  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 dikes and terraced fields with spring ○ Used an alphabet and a system of water in mountain regions. writing. ◆ They had also learned how to build ○ Developed methods of counting, boats for trading purposes. Spanish weights, and measurements. chronicles noted refined plank-built ○ Did not have a fixed calendar but warships called caracoa suited for counted time by: inter island trade raids. Lunar periods. Agricultural cycles (e.g., harvests). ➔ Trading Weaving and Craftsmanship: SUMMARIZED ○ Wove cloth and produced beeswax and honey. 1. Trade and Early Economy ○ Crafted gold jewelry and even filled By the 10th Century: teeth with gold. ○ Butuan: Traded with Champa ○ Created colorful and intricate (Vietnam). clothing. ○ Ma-i (Mindoro): Traded with China as recorded in Chinese historical 5. Agriculture and Livelihood accounts. Cultivated crops like: ○ San-Hsu (Palawan and Calamian ○ Rice, vegetables, and cotton. Islands): Traded products like: Raised livestock: Exported: Bee wax, cotton, ○ Swine, goats, and fowls. pearls, tortoise shell, betel nuts (medicinal), and panie 6. Housing and Lifestyle cloth. Houses: Imported: Porcelain, lead ○ Constructed from wood and fishnet sinkers, colored bamboo for durability and glass beads, iron pots, adaptation to the environment. needles, and tin. ○ Filipinos also conducted trade with ◆ By the 10th century, Filipinos from the Borneo, Malacca, and parts of the Butuan were trading with Champa Malay Peninsula. (Vietnam) and those from Ma-i 2. Societal Organization (Mindoro) with China as noted in Barangay System: Chinese records containing several ○ Autonomous communities led by a references to the Philippines. datu (chief). ◆ The People of Ma-i and San-Hsu ○ Functioned as the basic political (group of Palawan and Calamian and social unit. Islands) traded bee wax, cotton, pearls, coconut heart mats, tortoise 3. Early Science and Technology Knowledge of Plants: shell and medicinal betel nuts, panie ○ Identified curative properties of cloth for porcelain, lead fishnets herbs and plants. sinker, colored glass beads, iron pots, ○ Developed methods to extract iron needles and tin. medicines from natural sources. ◆ Filipinos also traded with Borneo, First-Wave Technology: Malacca and parts of Malay peninsula ○ Developed artillery (indicating knowledge of metallurgy and ◆ By the time the Spaniards came, they defense strategies). found autonomous communities (barangay). 4. Intellectual and Cultural Practices ◆ Filipinos were already engaged in Writing and Language: activities and practices related to science forming primitive or first wave STS PAGE 7  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 technology. They were curative values of some plant on how to extract 2. Economic Developments medicine from herbs. Manila's Prosperity: ◆ They had an alphabet, a system of ○ Fueled by the Galleon Trade, which writing, a method of counting and connected the Philippines to weights and measure. They had no Mexico and Spain. calendar but counted the years by the ○ 1789: Manila opened to Asian shipping. period of the moon and from one ○ 1829: Eventually expanded to world harvest to another. trade. ◆ Filipinos had learned to make and use ○ Key industries modernized: artillery. Sugar and hemp production ◆ They were growing rice, vegetables accelerated. and cotton; raising swine, goats and ○ Shipbuilding: Thrived and was dominated fowls; weaving cloth and producing by native workers. beeswax and honey ○ Decline in other industries: ◆ They wore colorful clothes, made their Mining, handicrafts, and own gold jewelry and even filled their other traditional sectors teeth with gold suffered. ◆ Their houses were made of wood and ○ Imports of manufactured goods bamboo increased significantly. 3. Infrastructure and Technological Advancements SPANISH ERA Urban Innovations in Manila: SUMMARIZED ○ Waterworks system, steam tramways, and electric lights 1. Development of Modern Science and Technology introduced. Educational and Medical Institutions: ○ Development of a newspaper and a ○ Spaniards established schools and banking system. hospitals, fostering scientific Despite urban growth, the countryside learning. remained poor and underdeveloped. ○ University of Santo Tomas (UST): Became the highest 4. Socio-Economic Inequality institution of learning Expansion of agriculture for export: during the Spanish period. ○ Accelerated disparities between ○ 1887: Establishment of Laboratory urban and rural areas. Municipal de Ciudad de Manila. ○ Introduced private land ownership, Leon Ma. Guerrero: Known replacing communal systems. as the "Father of Philippine Wealth became concentrated among: Botany" and one of the first ○ Landowners, Spaniards, Chinese licensed pharmacists. mestizos, and the native principalia. Meteorology: Socio-economic inequality persisted, with ○ Manila Observatory (founded in rural areas neglected. 1865 by Jesuits): Conducted meteorological ➔ The beginning of modern science and studies. technology in the Philippines Fr. Federico Faura issued ➔ Spaniards established schools, hospitals and the first public typhoon warning. started scientific research, greatly shaped by In 1901, the Observatory the role of religious orders though became the Philippine ➔ University of Santo Thomas remained as the Weather Bureau’s central highest institution of learning station. STS PAGE 8  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ➔ In 1887, the Laboratory Municipal de Ciudad ○ Secondary Education: Developed de Ciudad de Manila was created Leon Ma. after primary schools. Guerrero, father of botany in the country and Higher Education: one the first licensed pharmacist ○ University of the Philippines (UP): ➔ Manila prospered due to Galleon trade Created on June 18, 1908, by Act of ➔ Only ship building industry prospered. the Philippine Legislature. Shipbuilding was entirely in the hands of the Colleges Established: 1909: College of natives. Agriculture in Los ➔ Mining, handicrafts and other industries Baños, Laguna. declined. 1910: Colleges of ➔ Manila was opened to Asian shipping in 1789, Liberal Arts, then eventually to world trade in 1829. Engineering, and ➔ Production of sugar and hemp was Veterinary Medicine. accelerated and modernized. 1911: College of ➔ Imports of manufactured also rose Law. ➔ Waterworks system, steam tramways, electric 1916: School of lights, newspaper and banking system were Forestry and introduced in Manila Conservatory of ➔ Meteorological studies were promoted by Music. Jesuits who founded the Manila Observatory 1918: College of Education. in 1865. ○ Most educators were Americans or ➔ Fr. Federico Faura to issue the first public foreigners, except in the College of typhoon warning Medicine. ➔ In 1901, the Observatory was made a central ○ Young Filipinos were encouraged to station of the Philippine Weather Bureau pursue professional education in ➔ Manila prospered but countryside remained American colleges. underdeveloped and poor 2. Scientific Research and Institutions ➔ The expansion of the agricultural production Bureau of Government Laboratories (1901): for export exacerbated existing socio ○ Renamed the Bureau of Science. economic inequality and introduced private ○ Focused on: ownership of land. Disease research: Leprosy, ➔ There was an increase of concentration of tuberculosis, cholera, wealth to landowners, Spaniards, Chinese dengue fever, malaria, and mestizos, and native Principalia beri-beri. Studies on: AMERICAN ERA Commercial value of tropical SUMMARIZED products. Testing minerals 1. Education System and Advancements and road materials. Public School System: Nutritional value of ○ Introduced a secularized education foods. system with English as the medium ○ Published the Philippine Journal of of instruction. Science (1906), reporting on local ○ Primary Education: Free and and global scientific developments. accessible to all. ○ Philippine Normal School: 3. Infrastructure and Industrial Advancements Established to train Filipino Transportation and Communication: teachers. ○ Railroads: Built in Luzon, Cebu, and Panay. STS PAGE 9  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ➔ The University of the Philippines was created ○ Ports: Expanded maritime trade; Pier 7 in Manila became Asia's on 18 June 1908 by Act of the Philippine largest port. Legislature. Economic Development: ◆ College of Agriculture in Los Baños, ○ Free Trade Relations: Economy tied Laguna in 1909 to the United States. ◆ Colleges of Liberal Arts, College of Exports: Agricultural crops Engineering and Veterinary Medicine and raw materials. in 1910 Imports: American manufactured goods. ◆ College of Law in 1911. ○ Entry into the Industrial Age: ◆ School of Forestry and Conservatory Initiation of mass of Music in 1916 production techniques. ◆ College of Education in 1918 ➔ Most of the teachers were Americans and 4. Establishment of Government Science Agencies foreigners, except in the college of Medicine. Promoted scientific research and economic growth: ➔ Young men and women were encouraged to ○ Weather Bureau (1901). get a higher professional education in ○ Board/Bureau of Health (1898). American colleges ○ Bureau of Mines (1900). ➔ In 1901, the Bureau of Government ○ Bureau of Forestry (1900). Laboratories was created and later named ○ Bureau of Agriculture (1901). Bureau of Science ○ Bureau of Coast and Geodetic ➔ It pioneered research on diseases such as Survey (1905). ○ Bureau of Plant Industry (1929). leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, ○ Bureau of Animal Industry (1929). malaria and beri-beri ○ National Research Council of the ➔ Studies on the commercial value of tropical Philippine Islands (NRCP). products, tests on minerals and road building materials, the nutritional value of foods were 5. Key Science and Technology Institutions done here. Philippine Inventors Commission (1964). ➔ From 1906, the Bureau of Science published Philippine Coconut Research Institute (1964). the Philippine Journal of Science which Philippine Textile Research Institute (1967). reported not only work done in local Forest Products Research and Industries laboratories but also scientific developments Development Commission (1969). abroad which had relevance to Philippine Metals Industry Research and Development problems Center (MIRDC). ➔ The Philippines became an Asian leader in Philippine Science High School (PSHS). Philippine Council for Agriculture and transportation and communication. Resources Research (PCARR). ➔ Railroads were developed in Luzon, Cebu and Panay. ➔ More ports and shipping were opened up. Pier ➔ Science and technology in the Philippines 7 in Manila was the largest port in Asia. advanced rapidly during the American regime ➔ Philippine economic development was ➔ The Americans introduced a system of determined by free trade relations secularized public-school education ➔ As a result, the Philippine economy became ➔ Primary education was free, with English as tied to that of the United States, remaining the medium of instruction. primarily an exporter of agricultural crops and ➔ It was followed by thhe setting up of a raw materials and an importer of American Philippine Normal School to train Filipino manufactured goods. teachers. ➔ The Philippines entered Industrial age (mass ➔ Secondary school were opened afterward production) STS PAGE 10  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ➔ Offices were organized for the growth of ➔ The occupation of the Philippines by the scientific research Japanese during the war brought educational ◆ Weather Bureau (1901) and scientific activities to a halt. ◆ Board (later Bureau) of Health (1898) ◆ Bureau of Mines (1900) ◆ Bureau of Forestry (1900) 2.0 Intellectual Revolutions that Defined ◆ Bureau of Agriculture (1901) ◆ Bureau of Coast and Geodetic Survey Society (1905) ◆ Bureau of Plant Industry (1929) ◆ Bureau of Animal Industry (1929) 2.1 Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian ◆ National Research Council of the COPERNICAN REVOLUTION Philippine Islands (NRCP) period where paradigm shifts occurred and ➔ The creation of these science agencies where scientific beliefs that have been widely showed increasing concern and support for embraced and accepted by the people were the development of science and technology. challenged and opposed ◆ The Philippine Inventors Commission 16th century (1964) ◆ Philippine Coconut Research Institute ➔ Ptolemy (1964) ◆ “earth is the center of the universe” ◆ Philippine Textile Research Institute ◆ geocentric model (1967) ➔ Nicolaus Copernicus ◆ Forest Products Research and ◆ polish mathematician and astronomer Industries Development Commission ◆ “Heliocentric model” (1969) ◆ Metals Industry Research and Development Center (MIRDC) ◆ Philippine Science High School (PSHS) ◆ Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR). COMMONWEALTH PERIOD ➔ The Commonwealth government worked towards the development of economic self reliance but failed due to foreign trade and ➔ Commentariolus tariff policies that were controlled by the ◆ De revolutionibus orbium coelestium American government (the revolution of celestial spheres) ➔ Public school system (basic education) ◆ 1543 expanded and private schools (higher ◆ repositioned the earth and that rotates education) were reorganized. in its own axis ➔ The National Development Company was ➔ Tycho Barahe mandated to undertake the development of ◆ cassiopeia successful research of government science ➔ Johannes Kepler agencies, such as the Bureau of Science, ◆ planets move in elliptical orbits and Bureau of Animal Industry and Bureau of Plant the sun at the center Industry. ➔ Galileo Galilei ◆ developed his own telescope ➔ Isaac Newton STS PAGE 11  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ◆ Law of Gravitation “Survival of the form ★ Heliocentric vs. Church that will leave the ○ Copernicuse faced persecution most copies of itself ○ inadequacies in successive generations” DARWINIAN REVOLUTION ➔ Charles Darwin FREUDIAN REVOLUTION ◆ british naturalist and biologist known ➔ Sigmund Freud for his theory of evolution and his ◆ Australian neurologist credited for understanding of the process of stirring a 20th cen “natural selection” ◆ Discovery of a way of location in the ◆ born: feb. 12, 1809 in the tiny mind objective entities which can be merchant town of shrewsbury england studied like physical things developed ◆ child of wealth and privilege who loved psychoanalysis to explore to explore nature, darwin ◆ Brain can be segmented into was the 2nd youngest of 6 kids compartments: EGO: decision making ★ Darwinism component, works by reason ○ Theory of biological evolution SUPEREGO: values and morals developed ○ Consists of 2 ○ 1809-1882 systems: conscience ○ All species of organisms arise and and ideal self develop through the natural selection ID: impulsive and of small, inherited variations that unconscious, illogical, increase the individual’s ability to irrational, and fantasy oriented compete, survive, and reproduce ➔ Psychoanalysis ○ THEORY OF EVOLUTION ◆ Scientific method of understanding Declared that species survived inner and unconscious conflicts through a process called embedded within one’s personality, “natural selection” springing from free associations, KEY POINTS: dreams and fantasies of an individual Individuals of a species are not ➔ Psychosexual development identical ◆ Freud suggested that humans are Traits are passed inherently pleasure-seeking individuals from generation to ORAL STAGE: birth - 1 yr generation ○ Erogenous zone: More offspring are mouth born than can survive ANAL STAGE: 1 - 3 yr Only the survivors of ○ Erogenous zone: the competition for bowel & bladder resources will control reproduce PHALLIC STAGE: 3 - 6 yr SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST ○ Erogenous zone: Phrase that originated genitals from darwinian LATENT STAGE: 6 - puberty evolutionary theory ○ Erogenous zone: libido inactive STS PAGE 12  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 GENITAL STAGE: puberty - death 2.2 Meso-American, ○ Maturing sexual interests Asian, Middle ◆ Not supported by empirical data Eastern, Africa ◆ One of the most controversial and rejected idea of freud ➔ OEDIPUS: boy develops sexual desires for mother ➔ ELECTRA: girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis - MESOAMERICA - Region & Definition ➔ LIBIDO Indigenous cultures in Mexican and Central ◆ Used to describe the energy created American regions before the 16th century. by the survival and sexual instincts "Meso" means middle. ◆ Part of the ID and a driving force of all Cultural area: 768,000 square kilometers. behavior ◆ To freud, represented all psychic Geographic Boundaries energy and not just sexual energy North: Panooco River (Hidalgo, Potosi, San ◆ FACTORS: Luis, Querétaro). Sex hormones South: Central American nations (El Salvador, Psychological factor Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Social issues Nicaragua). Medical and health conditions Primary Empires ➔ DREAM THEORY Maya Empire: Flourished in low-lying jungles of ◆ Consistent with the psychoanalytic southern Mesoamerica (modern-day Mexico to perspective Costa Rica). ◆ suggested that dreams represent Aztec Empire: Located in high mountainous unconscious desires thoughts, and highlands. motivations Inca Empire: Based in the Andes mountains ◆ Dreams are disguised fulfillments of (South America, not part of Mesoamerica). repressed wishes ◆ 2 components: Geographic Features Manifest content: made up of Southern low-lying jungles. the actual images, thoughts, High mountainous regions (inhabited by and content contained within Aztecs). the dream Latent Content: represents the Cultural Separation hidden psychological meaning Maya, Aztec, and Inca empires did not interact. of the dream Maya: Collapsed around 1200 CE; did not travel north. ★ THE INFORMATION HIGHWAY Inca: Unlikely contact with Maya or Aztecs, ○ Convergence of computer and remained in South America. improved visual technologies ○ Present time STS PAGE 13  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Cultural Identity Literate members of society, Diverse, with each civilization having unique known for their elaborate advantages and challenges. attire, including jaguar skins. Mesoamerican civilizations contributed to the 3. Merchants and Artisans: region's rich cultural diversity. Traded goods such as salt, cotton, jade, and feathers. MAYAN CIVILIZATION Artisans constructed temples, 1. Overview of the Mayan Civilization made intricate artworks, and Timeline: wove textiles to honor the ○ Spanned approximately 2,000 years, gods. from around 1800 BC to the Emphasis was placed on post-classical period (900–1519 AD). flawless workmanship in ○ One of the most advanced societies in religious and ceremonial Mesoamerica. objects. Geographical Location: 4. Farmers: ○ Occupied parts of modern southern Lived in simple homes and Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, provided essential food and Honduras. supplies. Cultural Significance: Women raised children and ○ Known for profound advancements in helped with agricultural tasks. astronomy, architecture, mathematics, and writing. 3. Religion ○ Name derived from Mayapan, the last Beliefs: Mayan capital city. ○ Polytheistic religion with over 166 identified deities. 2. Political and Social Structure ○ Gods represented natural elements, Government: celestial bodies, and human aspects. 1. Organized into city-states, each ruled ○ Example deities: by a god-king believed to be Itzamna: God of writing, half-human and half-divine. knowledge, and patron of the 2. Leadership was hereditary, with humanities. kingships passed down within Ix Chel: Goddess of childbirth, families. medicine, and fertility 3. Authority was rooted in religion, as (Itzamna's wife). rulers were considered representatives Religious Practices: of the gods. ○ Human sacrifices and offerings made 4. Local governance included chiefs, to appease the gods. centralized leaders, priests, and ○ Rituals often involved masks, statues, military commanders. and decorations in temples. Social Hierarchy: ○ Sacred sites, such as cenotes, were 1. Monarchs: Supreme leaders who were used for offerings (e.g., Chichen Itza’s both political and religious figures. Sacred Cenote). 2. Aristocrats and Priests: Managed religious 4. Achievements and Innovations ceremonies, military Astronomy: operations, and tax collection. ○ Predicted celestial events, such as eclipses. STS PAGE 14  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ○ Aligned their architecture (e.g., 2. Fallowing: Allowed soil to pyramids) with astronomical recover by leaving it unused occurrences, like equinoxes. for one or two vegetative Mathematics: cycles. ○ Developed a base-20 numbering 3. Raised-Bed Farming: system and an early use of zero. Elevated plots that ○ Allowed for accurate calculations, supported multiple particularly for their calendar system. harvests annually. Writing: Supported by an ○ Created an advanced hieroglyphic advanced irrigation system to document history, system with canals astronomy, and religious beliefs. and streams. ○ Knowledge preserved in codices 4. Forest Gardening: (books made from bark paper); only Cultivated cacao, gum three codices survive today due to trees, edible tubers, Spanish destruction. and roots while Calendar Systems: allowing wild plants to ○ Developed two main calendars: grow. Religious Calendar: 260 days, used for ceremonies and 6. Architecture and Urban Development rituals. City Design: Solar Calendar: 365 days, ○ Cities featured grand pyramids, used to guide agricultural and temples, palaces, and ball courts. political activities. ○ Architectural designs were often ○ Priests used these calendars for aligned with astronomical divination and planning societal phenomena. events. Notable Sites: ○ Chichen Itza: 5. Economy and Trade Renowned for its pyramid, Currency: which aligns with the sun ○ Cacao beans were commonly used as during equinoxes. currency. Home to cenotes, essential for Trade: water supply and religious ○ Exchanged goods both locally and offerings. with neighboring regions. Pok-Ta-Pok: ○ Key goods: ○ Popular ball game played in 1. Exports: Salt, flint, feathers, ceremonial courts. honey, cotton textiles, jade ○ Players struck a rubber ball with their ornaments. hips; hands were not allowed. 2. Imports: Ritual items, tools, ○ Winners were sometimes sacrificed to and rare goods. honor the gods, symbolizing divine Agricultural Practices: favor. ○ Used advanced techniques to sustain their population despite environmental 7. Agriculture and Sustainability challenges: Key Crops: 1. Slash-and-Burn: Cleared ○ Included maize, cacao, gum trees, forests for farming but tubers, and berries. depleted soil within 2–3 years. Irrigation: STS PAGE 15  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ○ Hydraulic systems fed water from ○ Festivals: streams to support farming. Inti Raymi (Sun Festival): Challenges: Celebrated abundance and ○ Over-reliance on slash-and-burn honored Inti. techniques led to soil depletion. ○ Sacrifices: ○ Shifted to sustainable methods like Rare but significant: Included raised beds and forest gardening for guinea pigs, llamas, and long-term productivity. occasionally children or virgins to gain divine favor. 8. Decline and Legacy ○ Belief in reincarnation. Reasons for Decline: ○ Environmental degradation due to 2. Achievements and Innovations over-farming and deforestation. Architecture: ○ Internal conflicts and political ○ Machu Picchu: instability. Built as a residence for ○ Natural disasters may have Emperor Pachacuti. exacerbated societal challenges. Served as a religious city, Legacy: fortress, and symbol of civil ○ Contributions to astronomy, engineering prowess. mathematics, and architecture remain Accessible only by roads and influential. suspension bridges; located ○ Surviving sites like Chichen Itza and 1,950 feet above rivers. the Mayan Codices continue to ○ Stone Buildings: provide insights into their advanced Engineered to withstand civilization. earthquakes. No mortar used; stones fit INCA CIVILIZATION precisely together. 1. Overview Road System: Advanced Society: The Inca made significant ○ Massive network connecting the advancements in science, engineering, and empire, with all roads leading to governance despite limitations as an ancient Cusco. civilization. ○ Paved with arranged stones or Government: cobbles. ○ Centralized authority with the emperor ○ Suspension Bridges: holding absolute power. First of their kind; critical for ○ Highly organized bureaucracy: 1,331 crossing challenging terrains government officials per 10,000 like rivers and gorges. people. 200 rope bridges existed, ○ Implemented the Mita Tax System: though only one remains Citizens provided labor or today. goods instead of currency as Demonstrated ingenuity a form of taxation. despite the absence of Labor was often used for wheeled transport. infrastructure projects such as roads and temples. 3. Agriculture and Engineering Key Religious Beliefs: Farming Practices: ○ Sun Worship: The sun god Inti was the ○ Altered landscapes to maximize centerpiece of their religion. agricultural productivity: STS PAGE 16  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Terracing: Created flat farming Fine Cloth: Used as both a tax areas on mountain slopes. and a form of currency. Canals and Irrigation: Prized Possessions: The best Provided water to fields, even textiles were considered more in arid regions. valuable than gold or silver. Drained Wetlands: Reclaimed Chicha: marshlands for farming. ○ A fermented maize beverage, often ○ Soil Fertilization: used in religious rituals and Used fish heads, dried llama celebrations. dung, and guano (bird Animal Herds: droppings) to enrich the soil. ○ Census records documented herds ○ Crop Rotation: Maintained soil fertility. with tens of thousands of animals, Crops and Livestock: managed by the state for wool, meat, ○ Grew maize, potatoes, beans, grains, and sacrifices. and cacao. ○ Raised llamas and alpacas for: 6. Religious Practices Wool (for textiles), meat, Kurikantia Temple in Cusco: leather, transportation, and ○ Central temple dedicated to Inti, the religious sacrifices. sun god. Rituals in Agriculture: ○ Served as the religious heart of the ○ Sacrificed llamas and guinea pigs. Inca Empire. ○ Offered chicha (fermented maize or Festivals: fruit drink) near rivers or springs to ○ Celebrated various facets of the sun, ensure agricultural success. with Inti Raymi being the most prominent. 4. Record-Keeping and Communication ○ Marked abundance, agricultural Quipu (Kweipu): success, and loyalty to the gods. ○ A sophisticated system of knotted Human Sacrifices: strings used for: ○ Conducted rarely but for significant Data Collection: Tax records, events or to appease the gods. census data, and resource ○ Victims were chosen based on purity, inventories. often involving children or virgins. Calendar Information: Tracking agricultural cycles. 7. Engineering Marvels Military Organization: Earthquake-Resistant Structures: Mobilizing troops and ○ Stone buildings constructed without supplies. mortar. ○ While they lacked a written language ○ Stones were meticulously shaped to or advanced calendars, quipu interlock and absorb seismic shocks. compensated as an innovative tool for Suspension Bridges: administration and organization. ○ Allowed connectivity across challenging terrains. 5. Textiles and Economy ○ Essential for transportation and Inca Textiles: communication within the empire. ○ Highly decorative and symbolized Road Network: wealth and status. ○ One of the most extensive in the ○ Functions: ancient world. STS PAGE 17  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ○ Enhanced trade, military movement, Covered with soil for planting and administrative efficiency. crops. ○ Significance: AZTEC CIVILIZATION Increased arable land in 1. Overview of Contributions swampy regions. The Aztec civilization made substantial advancements Supported dense urban in science, technology, medicine, and agriculture, with populations by enabling lasting cultural and practical influences. They year-round farming. developed unique innovations and traditions that ○ Crops included maize, beans, squash, shaped their society and continue to be recognized and chilies. today. Agricultural Deity: ○ Quetzalcoatl (Feathered Serpent): 2. Science and Technology Revered as the deity who Mandatory Education: brought maize and cacao to ○ Education was compulsory for all the Aztecs. children, ensuring a literate and skilled Taught agricultural society. techniques, ensuring the ○ Schools trained citizens in agriculture, community's sustenance. warfare, religion, and governance. Aztec Calendar System: 4. Chocolate and Cacao ○ A complex and precise tracking Cacao Use: system for time, celestial movements, ○ Derived from the cacao tree, known to and rituals. the Aztecs as Xocatl. ○ 365-Day Calendar: Called Xiuhpohualli ○ Uses: ("year count") for agricultural and solar Cacao beans served as events. currency for trading food and ○ 260-Day Calendar: Known as goods. Tonalpohualli ("day count"), used for Prepared as beverages (hot, religious rituals. cold, or spiced), central to ○ Triple calendar system ensured daily life and rituals. coordination of agricultural cycles, ○ Cultural Importance: religious ceremonies, and festivals. Linked to Quetzalcoatl, who Invention of the Canoe: symbolized abundance and ○ Designed for efficient navigation of agricultural wisdom. lakes and canals in the Valley of Stored in decorative Mexico. containers, valued for its ○ Enabled trade, transportation, and caffeine content. fishing, essential for urban and agricultural life. 5. Advances in Medicine and Health Care Antispasmodic Medication: 3. Agricultural Innovations ○ Used to treat insomnia, epilepsy, and Chinampas (Floating Gardens): high blood pressure. ○ Ingenious farming method used on ○ Administered to relax muscles before freshwater lakes. surgery, preventing spasms during ○ Construction: operations. Created by weaving reeds and Passion Flower: stakes underwater to form ○ Medicinal herb used for its calming artificial islands. effects on the nervous system. STS PAGE 18  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Medical Colleges: mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and ○ Early institutions trained doctors in metallurgy. hundreds of treatments and surgical Key Areas of Contribution: procedures. ○ Iron manufacturing and metallurgical ○ Demonstrated advanced works. understanding of pharmacology and ○ Medicine: Development of holistic anatomy. healing systems. ○ Astronomy and Mathematics: 6. Cultural and Religious Practices Groundbreaking advancements that Religious Significance of Contributions: laid the foundation for future scientific ○ Innovations like chinampas and cacao exploration. were tied to religious rituals and beliefs. 2. Medicine: Ayurveda ○ Sun Worship: Overview: One of the world’s oldest holistic Festivals, especially those healing systems, Ayurveda is a natural dedicated to Tonatiuh (Sun medicine tradition developed more than 3,000 God), celebrated agricultural years ago in India. abundance and societal ○ Etymology: The term “Ayurveda” is prosperity. derived from Sanskrit words “Ayur” Calendrical Religious Observances: (life) and “Veda” (science). ○ The Aztec triple calendar was integral ○ Holistic Approach: Focuses on to coordinating sacred dates and balancing the mind, body, and spirit religious holidays. using natural remedies like herbs, ○ Each day had a unique name and dietary changes, and lifestyle number tied to celestial movements. adjustments. ○ Historical Development: 7. Infrastructure and Engineering Originated during the Vedic Chinampas: civilization and developed into ○ Revolutionized agriculture and a comprehensive system of sustained large urban populations. health. Canoes: Though Ayurveda was ○ Facilitated movement and trade, key to suppressed during foreign the Aztec economy. occupations, it has been Roads and Canals: experiencing a revival in ○ Supported efficient transport and modern times. communication across the empire. ○ Principles: Emphasizes individual constitution (doshas), digestion, and - ASIA - the balance of natural elements in the ➔ Biggest continent in the world body. ➔ Host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities 3. Mathematics and Astronomy: Notable Indian Scholars INDIA CIVILIZATION Aryabhata (476–550 AD): 1. Overview of Ancient Indian Civilization ○ Major Contributions: Legacy of Innovation: Ancient India was a hub Known as the "Father of of intellectual curiosity and scientific progress. Algebra". This civilization flourished for millennia and contributed significantly to fields such as STS PAGE 19  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 Introduced trigonometric both Islamic and European functions and algorithms of scholarship. algebra. Madhava of Sangamagrama (14th Century): Correctly estimated Pi (π) as ○ Founder of the Kerala School of 3.14, laying the foundation for Mathematics and Astronomy. further mathematical analysis. ○ Mathematical Contributions: Zero: Aryabhata’s work Developed the infinite series involved the use of zero, which for Pi, calculating Pi to 13 revolutionized mathematics. decimal places. Astronomy: His series, known as the First to explain the Madhava-Newton or Earth’s rotation on its Madhava-Leibniz series, was axis. an early form of the power Proposed a series used in modern heliocentric theory, calculus. indicating that planets Contributed to trigonometry, orbit the Sun. providing sine values for 24 Accurately described angles. lunar and solar Made advances in algebra and eclipses and planetary polynomial expansion, and is motions. considered a precursor to Estimated the length modern calculus. of the solar year to be 365 days, 6 hours, 12 4. Key Technological and Scientific Advancements minutes, and 30 Manufacturing of Iron and Metallurgy: seconds. ○ Ancient India was known for its skill in Explained planetary ironworking and metallurgical works, motion using producing some of the finest iron and epicycles, similar to steel in the ancient world. later developments in ○ The Iron Pillar of Delhi, a testament to Western astronomy. India's advanced metallurgy, remains Brahmagupta (598–668 AD): largely rust-free despite being over ○ Mathematical and Astronomical 1,600 years old. Achievements: Invention of the Canoe: Known for his work on lunar ○ Early civilizations in India developed and solar eclipses and for canoes for transportation, fishing, and predicting planetary locations trade, enabling them to explore rivers and velocities. and coastal areas. Correctly calculated the solar ○ This innovation contributed to the year as 365 days, 5 hours, 19 establishment of trade routes and the minutes. expansion of the civilization's cultural Made significant contributions influence. to algebra, including the concept of negative numbers 5. Indian Astronomy and the Calendar System and zero in calculations. Indian Astronomical Understanding: Authored important texts on ○ Indian scholars like Aryabhata and mathematics and astronomy, Brahmagupta were pioneers in which became influential in understanding celestial mechanics, STS PAGE 20  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 contributing to the development of during the Han Dynasty (2nd century BCE to more accurate calendars and 2nd century CE). astronomical instruments. ○ Early compasses were made from ○ The Indian calendar system influenced lodestone (a naturally magnetic many global systems, particularly in mineral) or magnetite. the measurement of time and the ○ Initially used for geomancy understanding of celestial bodies' (divination) and feng shui (the art of movements. spatial arrangement), rather than navigation. CHINA CIVILIZATION ○ The divining board used in feng shui 1. Key Contributions of Ancient China featured the 8 trigrams and 24 Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) directions. History and Practice: Feng Shui ○ Practiced for over 2,200 years, TCM is Principles: A system of divination based on the a holistic healing system that aims to belief that the environment can influence balance the body’s energy (qi) and human health, fortune, and well-being. maintain harmony between its ○ Practice: Feng shui is used to elements. determine auspicious locations for ○ Key Text: The Huangdinejing (Yellow buildings, the direction of doors, Emperor's Inner Classic), dating back windows, and furniture placement. to the 3rd century BC, is the ○ Although its origins trace back to foundational text of TCM. ancient China, feng shui is still ○ Central to TCM is the concept of practiced globally in architecture and balancing yin (passive energy) and design. yang (active energy), as well as the Paper-Making flow of qi (life force) throughout the History: Before the invention of paper, the body. Chinese wrote on bones, turtle shells, and Acupuncture bamboo slips. Definition: A form of alternative medicine ○ Paper invention: Paper-making was where thin needles are inserted into specific invented during the Western Han body points to balance energy and treat Dynasty (202 BCE–9 AD) and various conditions. improved by Cai Lun in the Eastern ○ Principles: Involves thousands of Han Dynasty (25–220 AD). points across 12 fundamental areas of ○ Cai Lun’s Method: His process the body. involved pulping plant fibers and ○ Needles are inserted to varying depths spreading them on screens to form (typically 3-10mm) and may be spun sheets. This method revolutionized the or connected to low-voltage currents writing process and facilitated the for therapeutic effects. spread of knowledge and culture. ○ Commonly used for pain relief, stress Gunpowder reduction, and promoting overall Origins: Gunpowder was discovered while health. Chinese alchemists were searching for an immortality elixir. 2. Inventions and Technological Advancements ○ Composition: A mixture of 75% Chinese Compass saltpeter, 15% charcoal, and 10% History: One of the four great Chinese sulfur. inventions, the compass was first mentioned STS PAGE 21  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, & SOCIETY S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 ○ Early Uses: Gunpowder was first used MIDDLE EAST CIVILIZATION in military operations during the Tang 1. Overview: The Islamic Golden Age Dynasty (618–907 AD). Dominance of Islam: The Middle East, ○ Led to the development of fire arrows, predominantly occupied by Muslims, played a bombs, and later, cannons during the central role in preserving and expanding Song and Yuan Dynasties. knowledge during the Golden Age of Islam Printing (8th to 14th century). History: Printing technology was first Language: Arabic became the common developed around 600 AD. language of scholarship, and Arabic-speaking ○ Early Printing: The Chinese initially scholars had access to classical Greek texts. used engraved seals and later moved Proximity to India: Geographic closeness to to woodblock printing. India facilitated the exchange of knowledge, ○ Invention of Movable Type: In the Song especially in the fields of mathematics, Dynasty (960–1279 AD), fixed-type astronomy, and medicine. and engraved printing techniques Contributions to Modern Science: Muslim allowed the mass production of books chemists and alchemists were crucial in laying and materials. the foundation for modern chemistry. ○ Printing significantly improved literacy Decline: The Golden Age of Islam ended with and the dissemination of knowledge, the Mongol invasions, which destroyed although challenges such as libraries, observatories, and other learning engraving errors and preservation institutions, leading to a significant loss of issues remained. intellectual heritage. 3. Notable Achievements in Science, Mathematics, and 2. Key Areas of Contribution Arts Mathematics