History of Ancient Greece PDF

# The History of Ancient Greece ## The Bronze Age * The Bronze Age in Greece began around 2700 BCE. * The most important cultures of the Bronze Age were the **Minoan** (or **Cretan**) and **Mycenaean** civilizations. * The Minoan civilization is named after King Minos, who ruled from the city of K...

# The History of Ancient Greece ## The Bronze Age * The Bronze Age in Greece began around 2700 BCE. * The most important cultures of the Bronze Age were the **Minoan** (or **Cretan**) and **Mycenaean** civilizations. * The Minoan civilization is named after King Minos, who ruled from the city of Knossos, home to the legendary Labyrinth. * The Minoan civilization was centered on the island of **Crete**. * The Minoans used a writing system called **Linear A**, but it has not been deciphered. * The Minoan civilization reached its peak in the mid-2nd millennium BCE under King Minos. * **Thalasocracy**, a form of maritime dominance, was used by Minos to strengthen his control over trade. * In the 15th century BCE, the Minoan civilization collapsed, likely due to a volcanic eruption and a tsunami. * The Mycenaean civilization was centered on the mainland of Greece. * The Mycenaeans adopted the achievements of the Minoan civilization. * This period in Greek history is known as the **Minoan-Mycenaean period** and lasted from 16th to 12th century BCE. * The Mycenaean civilization was led by the **Achaeans**, who held the title of **wanax** (king). * Important Mycenaean cities include Mycenae, Pylos, Tiryns, Thebes, Orchomenus, and Athens. * **Linear B**, the Mycenaean writing system, was deciphered by John Chadwick and Michael Ventris, proving it to be the earliest form of the Greek language. * The Mycenaean civilization ended with the **Trojan War**, which according to Greek tradition lasted from 1194 to 1184 BCE. ## The Dark Ages * The arrival of the **Dorians** on the Greek mainland coincides with the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. * According to Thucydides, the Dorians conquered Mycenae around 1184 BCE. * The period following the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization is known as the **Dark Ages** and lasted from about 1100 to 800 BCE. * The Dark Ages represent a decline in trade, food, population, and literacy. * The few written sources from the Dark Ages come from Homer's epics *The Illiad* and *The Odyssey*. * The Greeks started using **iron** during this time. * Greek migrations westward towards the coast of Asia Minor, especially towards the region of Ionia, took place during the Dark Ages. * Key cities of the Ionian League include Ephesus and Miletus. ## The Archaic Period * The Archaic Period began in 750 BCE and lasted until the beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars, around 499 BCE. * The formation of a unified Greek state was prevented by geographic barriers – mountains and a rugged coastline. * Key elements of Greek culture — language, religion, and customs — remained constant. * The Greeks referred to themselves as **Hellenes** (Greek for "Greeks") and their land as **Hellas**. * The Greek alphabet, adopted from the Phoenicians in the 8th century BCE, was adapted to include vowel symbols. ## Archaic Greece: Government and Society * The **polis** (city-state) became the prominent form of political and social structure. * Greek kings, who held the title of **basileus**, ruled the polis. * **Acropolis**, a fortified hilltop, was a prominent feature of Greek cities. * **Agora** (marketplace) was another important feature of Greek cities. * The following forms of government emerged in Archaic Greece and were distinguished by ruling classes: * **Aristocracy** - rule by the best * **Oligarchy** - rule by a few * **Democracy** - rule by the people * **Tyranny** - rule by one * **Plutocracy** - rule by the wealthy ## Sparta * Sparta is considered the most powerful Dorian state in Ancient Greece. * **Lacedaemon** is a synonym for Sparta, and its inhabitants are known as **Lacedaemonians**. * Although archaeological evidence suggests that Sparta arose from a merger of villages around 1000 BCE, tradition credits the city's governance to the legendary lawgiver **Lycurgus**. * Modern scholarship has questioned the historicity of Lycurgus, arguing that Spartan governance likely gradually evolved. * Spartan society was divided into three groups: * **Spartiates** (full citizens) - they were responsible for military service and government. * **Perioeci** (freemen) - they had no political rights but enjoyed economic freedom. * **Helots** (state slaves) - they were the workforce, responsible for agriculture and labor. * The most famous Spartan ritual was the **agoge**. This military training began at the age of 7 and emphasized physical fitness, discipline, and obedience to the state. * Spartan citizens were given a **kler**, or a plot of land from the state. * Thucydides considered a **"Spartan state"** to be a tool for controlling the helots. * In 464 BCE, the helots revolted after an earthquake ravaged Sparta. ## Spartan Governance * The **Great Rhetra**, attributed to Lycurgus, established Sparta's form of governance. * Spartan government was led by **two kings** from different royal families, the Agiads and the Eurypontids, to prevent tyranny. * The kings were held accountable by the **Council of Elders** (Gerousia) and the **Ephors**. * The **Gerousia** was comprised of 28 men over 60 years of age, including the two kings. * The **Ephors** were a group of five individuals who oversaw the kings, held the police power, and organized the state's military forces. * **The Assembly** (Apella) was composed of all Spartan citizens over 30 years of age. They voted by shouting, and the outcome was determined based on the intensity of the applause. ## Athens * Athens was founded by the **Ionians**, a Greek tribe. * In the 15th century BCE, Athens belonged to the **Mycenaean civilization**. * **Synoikism**, a process by which smaller communities were united to form a single city, was introduced in Athens. * Athenian society during this time was divided into: * **Eupatridae** (nobles) * **Demos** (commoners, farmers, merchants, and craftsmen) * **Metics** (foreigners, lacking political rights) * The **Athenian Constitution**, written by Aristotle, serves as a primary source for understanding Athenian political structure. * The following types of government existed throughout Athenian history: * **Monarchy** - rule by one king * **Aristocratic Republic** - rule by a select few * **Democracy** - rule by all citizens * **Kodros** was the last legendary Athenian king. * The **archons**, a body of nine elected officials, replaced the kings. * The **archon eponym** was the chief magistrate, responsible for government administration. * The **archon polemarch** was the war commander. * The **archon basileus** oversaw religious and legal affairs. * Six other archons, known as **tesmotetes**, were responsible for maintaining the judicial system. * The **Areopagus**, a council composed of former archons, served as a judicial and legislative body. * The **Ecclesia**, or the Athenian Assembly, composed of all Athenian citizens, was the supreme legislative body. * The system of government in archaic Athens is known as an **aristocratic republic**. ## Athenian Law and Reforms * Initially, Athenians relied on **customary law**. * **Draco** introduced the first written law in 621 BCE, which were incredibly harsh and believed to be written in blood. * **Debt slavery** was introduced under Draco's laws. * **Solon** introduced a new set of laws in 594 BCE. * Solon abolished **debt slavery** due to popular demands for reform. * Solon divided the citizens into four classes, each determined by their income and influence, the wealthiest group being eligible for election as archons. * This system of government is called **timocracy**, rule by those who held power based on their wealth. * Solon established the **Council of 400 (Boule)** to prepare matters for deliberation in the Athenian Assembly. * He also established the **People's Court**, a court where the commoners had more influence in legal matters. * Solon's reforms led to political unrest and ultimately, the implementation of **tyranny**. * **Pisistratus** took power in Athens in 560 BCE. * Pisistratus is credited with creating a period of prosperity, particularly for the farmers and less wealthy citizens. * Pisistratus was succeeded by his sons, **Hippias** and **Hipparchus**. * In 510 BCE, the **Spartans** overthrew the tyranny, ending this period of rule. ## Athenian Democracy * **Cleisthenes** brought about a moderate form of democracy in Athens approximately in 508 BCE. * He divided Athens into ten **tribes** based on geography and not social class. * Ten **Council of 500 (Boule)** members were chosen through lottery from each tribe to prepare laws for the Assembly, ensuring a more equitable representation of the people. * **Ostracism** was introduced as a way to prevent individuals from becoming too powerful and to diminish the chances of a return to tyranny. * Ostracism was practiced by having citizens write the name of a person they deemed dangerous on a shard of pottery, which were then collected. If a person's name appeared more than 6,000 times, they were banished for ten years. * The **strategoi** (commanders) of the Athenian army and navy were elected by the Athenian people, one member per tribe. * Athenian democracy reached its peak during the **golden age**, a period that lasted from the end of the Greco-Persian Wars through the early stages of the Peloponnesian War (490-431 BCE). * **Pericles**, a great Athenian statesman, is credited with introducing Athenian **radical democracy**. * Pericles established payment for public service, giving the commoners the opportunity to participate in politics. * The **Assembly** (Ecclesia) was the core of Athenian democracy, responsible for making policy decisions. * The Assembly ensured broader participation through random lotteries for public office, minimizing inequalities. ## The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) * This war is widely considered to be the most significant war in Greek history. * The warring factions were the **Delian League**, led by Athens, and the **Peloponnesian League**, led by Sparta. * The first stage of the war was known as the **Archidamian War** (431-421 BCE) * Sparta implemented a land-based war strategy by invading Athenian territory. * Athens resorted to a naval strategy and relied on its powerful navy to maintain its control over the Aegean Sea. * In 430 BCE, a devastating **plague** ravaged Athens, wiping out a third of the population, including Pericles. * **Mytilene**, a key ally of Athens, rebelled against its control during this war. * The **Peace of Nicias** (421 BCE) ushered in a period of truce between Athens and Sparta. ## The Sicilian Expedition * In 415 BCE, Athens sent an expedition to **Sicily**, aiming to conquer the city of **Syracuse** and establish dominance over western Mediterranean. * The Athenian mission was led by **Alcibiades** who was a member of the war party within Athens, committed to continuing the war against Sparta. * Despite initial victories, the Athenian campaign was disastrous. * The Athenian fleet was destroyed in 413 BCE, and their forces were defeated. * This defeat marked a turning point in the Peloponnesian War in favor of Sparta. ## The End of the Peloponnesian War * The **Ionian War**, the final phase of the Peloponnesian War, was fought primarily in the Aegean Sea and western Asia Minor. * **Persia** allied with Sparta, further bolstering their military strength. * The **Battle of Aegospotami** (405 BCE) resulted in a decisive victory for Sparta, and with the defeat of the Athenian fleet under its general Lysander, effectively ended the war. * Athens was forced to accept harsh terms for peace, which included the dismantling of the **Delian League**, the destruction of much of its fleet, and the surrender of control over its city walls. * The **Peace of Antalcidas** (387 BCE) marked the end of the Peloponnesian War, consolidating Spartan control over the Greek world. ## The Rise of Thebes * **Thebes** eventually ended Spartan dominance in Greece. * **Epaminondas**, a Theban general, led his forces to a crushing victory over the Spartans at the **Battle of Leuctra** (371 BCE). * The Spartans were decisively defeated by the Thebans at the **Battle of Mantinea** (362 BCE). * This marked the decline of Sparta as a leading power. ## The Rise of Macedon * **Macedonia**, a kingdom located in northern Greece, emerged as a powerful force in the Greek world. * The Macedonians, of Greek descent, were considered **barbarians** by many Greeks because of their distinct language and customs. * **King Archelaus I** (ruled late 5th century BCE) strengthened the Macedonian monarchy and expanded its borders. * **King Philip II** (ruled 359-336 BCE) transformed the Macedonian army with revolutionary military tactics. * He introduced the **Macedonian phalanx**, a new battle formation where the soldiers wielded long spears. * Philip II's forces defeated a coalition of Greek city-states, including Athens and Thebes, at the **Battle of Chaeronea** in 338 BCE, solidifying his control over most of Greece. He formed the **League of Corinth** to ensure his dominance. ## Alexander the Great * **Alexander the Great** (ruled 336-323 BCE), the son of Philip II, became king upon his father's assassination. * **Aristotle** was his tutor. * Alexander's reign marked the beginning of the **Hellenistic period** in Greek history (323 BCE - 31 BCE). * Alexander launched a military campaign into Persia, defeating **Darius III** at the **Battle of Granicus River** (334 BCE) and the **Battle of Issus** (333 BCE). * Alexander conquered **Phoenicia and Egypt** in his quest for power, establishing the city of **Alexandria** in Egypt. * The **Battle of Gaugamela** (331 BCE) resulted in a decisive victory for Alexander, and led to his conquering of the Persian Empire. * Alexander continued his campaign eastward, conquering parts of **India** in 326 BCE. * He was forced to turn back due to fatigue and discontent from his army. * Alexander died in Babylon at the age of 32, probably from malaria. * **Diadochi** were the successors to Alexander's empire, who engaged in ongoing struggles over power and territory. * Notable diadochi include **Antigonus the One-Eyed**, **Seleucus I**, and **Ptolemy I**. * The **Antigonid** kingdom controlled Macedonia. * The **Seleucid** kingdom held vast territories in the Near East. * The **Ptolemaic** kingdom established control over Egypt. * The Hellenistic Era was a period of cultural synthesis. The Greeks blended their artistic and philosophical traditions with those of Persia and the East. ## Greek Writing and Language * The **Minoan** civilization used a writing system known as **Linear A**. * The **Linear A** script remains undeciphered due to a lack of understanding of the Minoan language and related textual materials. * The **Mycenaean** civilization used **Linear B**, which was deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in 1952. * Their discovery showed that Linear B was an early form of the Greek language. * The **Dark Ages** witnessed a decline in literacy, but literacy was restored by the 8th century BCE. * The Greek alphabet, adapted from the Phoenician script, was developed to include vowels. * The word **alphabet** is derived from the Greek words **alpha** and **beta**, the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. ## Greek Literature * **Epic poetry** was the most ancient form of Greek literature. * **Homer**, the poet best known for the *Illiad* and *Odyssey*, is credited with the earliest examples of epic poetry. * **Hesiod** was another notable epic poet, best known for *Theogony*, a poem about Greek mythology. * **Lyric poetry** was another early form of Greek literature. * **Sappho**, **Pindar**, and **Anacreon** were prominent lyricists. * **Tragedy** was a popular form of drama in Ancient Greece. * **Aischylus**, **Sophocles**, and **Euripides** were prominent tragedians. * **Comedy** was another popular genre. * **Aristophanes** was the most famous playwright of comedies. * **Aesop** was a known writer of fables. ## Greek Sculpture and Architecture * Greek sculpture reached its heights during the **classical period** (5th century BCE). * The most remarkable Greek sculptures highlighted the aesthetic ideal of a perfectly balanced human form. * **Phidias** (Athena Parthenos statue in Athens) was an influential sculptor, as was **Myron** (Discus Thrower) and **Polykleitos** (Doryphoros, a spear-bearer). * **Temples** were central to Greek architecture. * There were three distinct styles of Greek architecture: * **Doric**: exemplified by the **Parthenon** in Athens. * **Ionic**: exemplified by the **Temple of Artemis** in Ephesus. * **Corinthian**: characterized by **ornate capitals** (the top part of the column). * The **Erechtheion** in Athens is renowned for its use of **caryatids**, columns sculpted in the form of female figures, as supports for the temple roof. * **Greek theatre**, considered one of the most influential aspects of Greek cultural legacy, is celebrated for its focus on tragedy and comedy. * The most well-preserved example of a Greek theatre is the **Epidaurian Theatre** in Greece.